View source for Bajan Creole

{{Short description|English-based creole of Barbados}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2008}}
{{Infobox language
| name         = Bajan
| states       = Barbados
| speakers     = {{sigfig|257,000|2}}
| date         = 2018
| ref          = e25
| familycolor  = Creole
| fam1         = [[English Creole]]
| fam2         = Atlantic
| fam3         = Eastern
| fam4         = Southern
| iso3         = bjs
|glotto=baja1265
|glottorefname=Bajan
| lingua       = [http://www.linguasphere.info/?page=inner&id_inner=1018457 52-ABB-ar]
| notice       = IPA
}}

'''Bajan''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|eɪ|dʒ|ən}} {{respell|BAY|jən}}), or '''Bajan Creole''', is an [[English-based creole language]] with West/Central African and British influences spoken on the [[Caribbean island]] of [[Barbados]]. Bajan is primarily a [[spoken language]], meaning that in general, standard English is used in print, in the media, in the judicial system, in government, and in day-to-day business, while Bajan is reserved for less formal situations, in music, or in social commentary. Ethnologue reports that, as of 2018, 30,000 Barbadians were native English speakers, while 260,000 natively spoke Bajan.

==Languages==
Bajan is the Caribbean creole with grammar that most resembles [[Standard English]].{{sfnp|Le Page|1957|pp=58–59}} There is academic debate on whether its creole features are due to an earlier pidgin state or to some other reason, such as contact with neighbouring English-based creole languages.{{sfnp|Cassidy|1986|p=195}} {{cn span|text=In one historical model, Bajan arose when captive West Africans were forcibly transported to the island, enslaved and forced to speak English, though learned imperfectly. Bajan later became a means of communicating without always being understood by the slave holders.|date=May 2022}}

Due to emigration to the [[Province of Carolina]], Bajan has influenced [[American English]]<ref>[http://www.barbados.org/usa_bdos.htm Barbados Tourism Encyclopaedia]</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/r/robertson-vesey.html ''New York Times'' – "The Buried History of America's Largest Slave Rebellion and the Man Who Led It"]</ref> and the [[Gullah language]] spoken in the Carolinas.<ref>{{cite book |author=Carrington, Sean |title=A~Z of Barbados Heritage |year=2007 |publisher=Macmillan Caribbean Publishers Limited|pages=113, 114 |isbn=978-0-333-92068-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.georgewashingtonbarbados.org/index.asp?pgid=5 |title=Historical Facts on George Washingtons visit to Barbados in 1751 |access-date=6 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115181915/http://www.georgewashingtonbarbados.org/index.asp?pgid=5 |archive-date=15 January 2010 }}</ref> Regionally, Bajan has ties to [[Belizean Kriol language|Belizean]] and [[Guyanese Creole]]s.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

Unlike Jamaica, Guyana or Trinidad, Barbados was the destination of few enslaved African-born captives after 1800.<ref name=INSIGHT>{{cite book |editor1-first=Caroline |editor1-last=Radula-Scott |title=Barbados |edition= 3rd |series=Insight Guide |year= 2000|publisher=APA Publications |location= Singapore|isbn=981-234-067-X |page= 58 |chapter=Features: All o' We Is Bajan }}</ref> Thus, [[African Barbadians]] became "Bajanised" relatively soon after British colonization. This tended to make them less resistant to local culture, with its Anglicised language, religion and customs.{{r|INSIGHT}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carrington |first1=Sean |last2=Fraser |first2=Henry |title=A~Z of Barbados Heritage |year=2003 |publisher=Macmillan Caribbean |isbn=0-333-92068-6 |pages=2–3 |chapter=African Heritage |quote=Direct African influence declined in Barbados earlier than in other major Caribbean societies. In 1817 only 7 percent of Barbadian slaves had been born in Africa, whereas in Jamaica the proportion was 36 percent and 44 percent in Trinidad. An important result was that the process of acculturation, whereby Afro-Barbadians were persuaded or coerced into accepting European cultural norms was more intensive in Barbados. To give two examples, the proportion of words of African origin in the Barbadian vocabulary is much lower than it is in Jamaica, and there are in Barbados none of the religions of African or partly African origin found elsewhere in the Caribbean, such as Voodoo in Haiti, Shango in Trinidad, or Kélé in [[St. Lucia]]. (It may be claimed that the [[Spiritual Baptists]] are an exception, but this church came to Barbados from Trinidad in comparatively recent times.) }}</ref>

Bajan is a primarily spoken language with no standardised written form. Due to the lack of standardisation, spelling may vary widely from person to person. There is much dialectal variation throughout the island. Barbadians practising Rastafari on the island also tend to speak more with a Jamaican accent than full Bajan. Bajan words and sentences presented below are largely spelled as they are pronounced. New terminology, expressions, jargon, and idioms are regularly added to the dialect by social commentary sung during the annual [[Crop Over]] festival.<ref>[http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=columnists&NewsID=25888 Musings: In this jurisdiction, solely] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407060123/http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=columnists&NewsID=25888 |date=7 April 2014 }}</ref>

==Features==
As in most English-based Caribbean creoles, the [[dental fricative|interdental]]s {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} (as in "<u>th</u>ing", and "<u>th</u>e" respectively) have merged with other consonants (in this case, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}}, respectively, resulting in "ting" and "de").{{sfnp|Cassidy|1986|p=202}} Unlike most other Caribbean creoles, Bajan is fully [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhotic]], and if anything more rhotic than [[North American Standard English]]. Bajan also has a strong tendency to realize syllable-final {{IPA|/t/}} as a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}}. Thus the Bajan pronunciation of ''start'', {{IPA|[stɑːɹʔ]}}, contrasts sharply with the pronunciation of other Caribbean speakers, {{IPA|[staːt]}} or {{IPA|[stɑːt]}} or {{IPA|[staːɹt]}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aceto |first1=Michael |last2=Williams |first2=Jeffrey P. |date=1 January 2003 |title=Contact Englishes of the Eastern Caribbean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L42oT48bPCEC&q=bajan+rhotic&pg=PA260 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |page=260 |isbn=9789027248909}}</ref>

===Pronouns===
Pronouns in Bajan Dialect do not diverge too far from Standard English, but there are differences. As with other similar creoles, Bajan does not differentiate subject and object pronouns, nor possessive pronouns, except in the case of the first person singular. Another difference is the word for the plural '''you''', which is ''wunna'', similar to the Jamaican word ''unnu'' / ''unna'' or Bahamian ''yinna'' or Gullah Geechee ''hunnuh''. Here is a list of [[Grammatical person|pronouns]] in Bajan Dialect:

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | Singular !!!! colspan="2" | Plural
|- align="center"
! Bajan !! Standard !!!! Bajan !! Standard
|- 
| I/me/my
| I/me/my
|
| we
| we/us/our
|- 
| yuh/you
| you/your
|
| wunna
| you all/your
|-
| he<br>she<br>it
| he/him/his<br>she/her<br>it/its
|
|dem
|they/them/their
|}

The word "yuh" is interchangeably pronounced {{IPA|/ju/}} or {{IPA|/jə/}}.

===Questions===
The structure of questions in Bajan Dialect varies from that of Standard English, as it is generally the same format as regular statements. Questions seeking yes or no answers are usually pronounced as a statement with only a raised [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to differentiate, usually on the last word. For example, ''Wunna win de cricket? '' means "Did you (pl.) win the cricket match?"; ''das yours?'' means "Is that yours?"

On the other hand, questions asking for information, i.e. [[Five Ws|who, what, when, where, why or how]], usually begin with a 'question word/phrase', saying what is being asked for, followed by a partial, or incomplete statement. For example, ''"Wha he wan?"'' means "What does he want?" or "He wants what?"{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} Some question words, however, do not exist, or are seldom used in Bajan dialect, including ''when, where and why'', and are achieved by making questions beginning with "wha" (what). For example, ''"Wha time you see he?"'' means "When did you see him?", and ''"Wha part de [[Chefette]]?"'' means "Where is the Chefette?" In addition, "why" questions can be achieved by asking "how come". For example, ''"How come you get hay so late?”''

===Tenses===
The tense/aspect system of Bajan is fundamentally unlike that of English. In Bajan, verbs are seldom conjugated, and only have a few forms, lacking forms to express tense or distinguish between singular and plural. In particular, there are no morphological marked past tense forms corresponding to English "-ed", "-t" or other past tense forms.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

'''Continuous Tenses'''<br>
:Continuity is shown in Bajan dialect in much the same way as it is in Standard English. In Bajan, the base of the verb is changed by adding "-in", "ing" or "ine" to the end. For many verbs, this simply results in a contracted form of the Standard English. For example, the base "do", from "to do", becomes "doin" in continuous tenses, which is a contracted form of the Standard English "doing".{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

'''Showing Tense'''<br>
:In Bajan dialect, the tense of a verb is expressed through 'tense indicators'. These are special verbs which are conjugated for this purpose, and generally derive from the verbs ''"to be"'', ''"to do"'' and ''"to go"''.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

::'''[[Simple present|The present tense]]''' is indicated by the words ''is'' or ''does'', with ''is'' being considered less proper. For example, 
::::"I does guh church pun a Sunduh/Sundy" → "I go to church on Sundays"
::::"He does eat nuff apples" → "He eats a lot of apples"
::The phrase "I is" or "I does", is quite commonly shortened to ''"Ise"''. e.g. ''"Ise guh church pun a Sunduh."''
::'''[[Simple past|The past tense]]''' unlike other tenses, is not indicated by a tense indicator, and uses only the base of the verb. For example,
::::"He walk town" → "He walked to town"
::::"Dem eat all de food" → "They ate all of the food".
::As an exception to the rules, the verb "to go" is conjugated to "went". For example,
::::"I went to church Sunduh" → "I went to church on Sunday"

::In Bajan dialect, when the past tense structure is made continuous, it instead becomes the [[present continuous]], for example ''"He watchin de show"'' means ''"He is watching the show"'', and ''"She gine eat"'' means ''"She is going to eat"''. The present and past perfect continuous tenses replaces the [[Uses of English verb forms#Past progressive/continuous|past continuous]].
::'''[[Present perfect|The present perfect tense]]''' uses the indicator "duh". For example,
::::"He duh dun get hey" → "He has already arrived"
::::"Wunna dun guh school" → "You all have gone to school.
::'''[[Pluperfect|The past perfect or pluperfect tense]]''' is indicated by the word "did" or "dih". For example,
::::"He did wan guh tuh de confrunce" → "He had wanted to go to the conference".
::'''[[Future tense|The future tense]]''' is indicated by the word "gun" or "gon". For example,
::::"She gine bring wunna de receipt" → "She will bring you all the receipt"

:There are many more nuances to Bajan verbs and tenses in addition. One such nuance is that unlike Standard English, Bajan also tends towards using a [[zero copula]]. E.g. ''"We in de garage"'' means ''"We are in the garage"''. Moreover, the indicators are also used as [[Copula (linguistics)|copulas]], much like [[E-Prime#Different functions of "to be"|"to be"]] in Standard English. E.g. ''"She duh in de house"'' means ''"She was in the house"''.

'''Negative'''<br>
:Negatives are achieved by modifying the tense indicator of the sentence to end in ''n'', or by adding ''ain'' before the verb in the past tense, present continuous or in place of the copula, or in front of the indicator in the present perfect tense. Here is a list of indicators and their negative form.

:{| class = "wikitable"
!Tense !! Indicator !! Negative !! Bajan Example !! Standard English
|- align="center"
! Present 
| does/is 
| (does/is) doan 
| Dem is doan talk to we<br>He doan ask fuh directions.
| They don't talk to us<br>He doesn't ask for directions.
|- align="center"
! Past
| -
| ain
| I ain do dah<br>Wunna ain finish wunna homework nuh?
| I didn't do that<br>You all did not finish your homework, did you?
|- align="center"
! Present Perfect
| duh
| ain duh
| She ain duh guh town<br>Dem ain duh stop at de shop.
| She hasn't gone to town<br>They hadn't stopped at the shop.
|- align="center"
! Past Perfect
| did
| din/din did
| Dem din walk tuh she party<br> Wunna din did eat de cake.
| They hadn't walked to her party<br> You all hadn't eaten the cake.
|}

:"I ain" is usually contracted to "Ah'n". e.g "Ah'n see she dis evening" means "I didn't see her this evening".

==Proverbs==
Some of the common Bajan proverbs are listed below.

{|class="wikitable"
! Proverbs
! Meaning
|-
| {{lang|bjs|De higha de monkey climb, de more he show he tail}}
| The more you show off the more you show your faults.
|-
| {{lang|bjs|Gol'}} (gold) {{lang|bjs|teet}} (teeth) {{lang|bjs|doan suit hog mout (mouth)}}
| Fancy things don't suit those that aren't accustomed to them.
|-
| {{lang|bjs|Cat luck ain' dog luck}}
| What one person may get away with may cause problems for another.
|-
|{{lang|bjs|Wuh ain' miss you, ain' pass you}}
|Just because you got away with something so far does not mean that it won't catch up with you later.
|-
| {{lang|bjs|Ef greedy wait hot wud}} (would) {{lang|bjs|cool}}
| Patience will be rewarded.
|-
| {{lang|bjs|A eyeful en' a bellyful}}
| Seeing is one thing, having it in your possession is another thing.
|}

==African words in Bajan==

Although most words in Bajan dialect are English in origin, many words are borrowed from West African languages. The largest portion contributed to Bajan is from the Igbo language.

; wunna: You all from the [[Igbo language|Igbo]] word {{lang|ig|unu}}, which means you (plural).
; [[obeah]]: From Igbo {{lang|ig|obia}}, 'doctoring, mysticism, or oracle'.
; Bim: From Igbo {{lang|ig|bé mụ́}}, 'my place, people, kindred', common nickname for Barbados
; de, deh: From Igbo {{lang|ig|dị̀}}, 'present in'
; eye-water: calque from {{lang|ig|ányá mmírí}} (eye + water), tears{{sfnp|Allsopp|Allsopp|2003|p=201}}
; duppy: From [[Twi]] {{lang|tw|adope}}.
; [[Cou-cou]]: Part of the local [[national dish]], but comes from "Fou Fou" in Africa.
; nyam: (Pronounced "ng-yam" or "yamm") Means to eat ravenously or greedily, as in "Don't yamm the food like that boy!" – In [[Manjak language|Manjaku]] (language spoken in [[Guinea-Bissau]]) and in [[Pulaar]] it means 'to chew' (pronounced "nyam"); it also means 'chew' in [[Luo languages|Luo]] (language spoken in [[East Africa]]).{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}
; jook/juk: From the [[Fula language|Fula]] word {{lang|ff|jukka}} 'poke, spur'
; soso: From the [[Igbo language]] word {{lang|ig|soso}} 'only'
; hard-head: From {{lang|ig|ísí íké}}, (head + hard, strength), 'obstinate'

==See also==
*[[Received Pronunciation|Queen's English]]
*[[British English]]
*[[English in Barbados]]
*[[Gullah language]]
*[[English-based creole languages]]
*[[List of countries and territories where English is an official language]]
*[[Culture of Barbados|Barbadian culture]]
*[[Music of Barbados]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |title=Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage |first1=Richard |last1=Allsopp |first2=Jeannette |last2=Allsopp |publisher=University of the West Indies Press |year=2003 |isbn=9766401454 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofcari0000unse }}
* [[Blake, Renee A.]] 1997. "All o' we is one? Race, class and language in a Barbados community". PhD, Stanford University.
* Burrowes, Audrey (in collaboration with Richard Allsopp), 1983. "Barbadian Creole: A note on its social history and structure". In Lawrence Carrington, Dennis Craig, & Ramon Todd Dandaré, eds, ''Studies in Caribbean Language''. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Society for Caribbean Linguistics, 38–45.
*{{citation
|last=Cassidy
|first=Frederic
|author-link = Frederic G. Cassidy
|year=1986
|title= Barbadian Creole–possibility and probability
|journal=[[American Speech]]
|volume=61
|issue=3
|pages=195–205
|doi=10.2307/454663
|jstor=454663
}}
* Fields, Linda. 1995. "Early Bajan: Creole or non-Creole?" In Jacques Arends, ed., ''The Early Stages of Creolization''. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: Benjamins, 89–112.
*{{citation
|last=Hancock
|first=Ian
|author-link = Ian Hancock
|year=1980
|title=Gullah and Barbadian–origins and relationships
|journal=American Speech
|volume=55
|issue=1
|pages=17–35
|doi=10.2307/455387
|jstor=455387
}}
* [[Holm, John A.]] 1988. ''Pidgins and Creoles'', vol. II: Reference Survey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*{{citation
|last=Le Page
|first=Robert
|year=1957
|title=General outlines of Creole English dialects in the British Caribbean
|journal=Orbis
|volume=7
|pages=54–64
}}
* [[Rickford, John R.]] 1992. "The Creole residue in Barbados". In Nick Doane, Joan Hall, & Dick Ringler, eds. ''Old English and New: Essays in language and linguistics in honor of Frederic G. Cassidy''. NY: Garland, 183–201.
* Rickford, John R. & Renee Blake. 1990. "Copula contraction and absence in Barbadian Creole English, Samaná English and Vernacular Black English". In Kira Hall et al., eds. ''Proceedings of the 16th Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society''. Berkeley CA: Berkeley Linguistics Society, 257–68.
* Rickford, John R and Jerome S. Handler. 1994. "Textual evidence on the nature of early Barbadian speech, 1676–1835". ''Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages'' 9: 221–55.
* Roberts, Peter A. 1988. ''West Indians and their language''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (''written by a Bajan'')
* Winford, Donald. 2000. "'Intermediate' Creoles and degrees of change in Creole formation: The case of Bajan". In I. Neumann-Holzschuh and E. W. Schneider, eds, ''Degrees of Restructuring in Creole Languages''. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: Benjamins, 215–245.
* ''A~Z of Barbados Heritage'', by Sean Carrington, Macmillan Caribbean – [[Macmillan Publishers Limited Press]], 2007, paperback. {{ISBN|0-333-92068-6}}
* Notes for: ''A Glossary of Words and Phrases of Barbadian Dialect'', by [[Frank A. Collymore]], Second Edition – Advocate Co. Limited Press, 1957, paperback
* "From Bajan To Standard English", by Jerome Davis, [http://www.barbadosdialect.page.tl/ Website of author Jerome Davis], former Barbadian Consul to Canada
*"Barbadian Dialect Poetry", by Kathleen Catford, [http://archive.nationnews.com/archive_detail.php?archiveFile=2007/May/06/Editorial/37831.xml&start=0&numPer=20&keyword=Dialect&sectionSearch=&begindate=1%2F1%2F1994&enddate=12%2F31%2F2009&authorSearch=&IncludeStories=1&pubsection=&page=&IncludePages=&IncludeImages=&mode=allwords&archive_pubname=Daily+Nation%0A%09%09%09 Common sense & evidence: The art of Bajan dialect] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005063140/http://archive.nationnews.com/archive_detail.php?archiveFile=2007%2FMay%2F06%2FEditorial%2F37831.xml&start=0&numPer=20&keyword=Dialect&sectionSearch=&begindate=1%2F1%2F1994&enddate=12%2F31%2F2009&authorSearch=&IncludeStories=1&pubsection=&page=&IncludePages=&IncludeImages=&mode=allwords&archive_pubname=Daily+Nation%0A%09%09%09 |date=5 October 2016 }}, Nation Newspaper

== Further reading ==
* [http://www.courses.vcu.edu/ENG-snh/Caribbean/Barbados/Culture/language.htm Caribbean Poetry-Barbados]
* [http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/africaninfluenceonbarbados.html African Influences on Barbados, Trevor Marshall] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214134432/http://www.africanholocaust.net//news_ah/africaninfluenceonbarbados.html |date=14 February 2015 }}
* http://www.barbadosdialect.page.tl : Introduces the book "From Bajan To Standard English". Highlights Bajan Dialect. See 50 common Bajan expressions
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCRcqmXZY00 Reflections of Barbados (A RADIO PROGRAMME - AUDIO ONLY)], The Barbados Government Information Service
* {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iUqW-psphnE |url-access= |title=Keeping up with the Joneses (S01E01) - Pilot |last=Hall |first=Rommell |date=22 November 2015 |orig-year=2011 |department= |website= |publisher=Hall-e-Wood Productions |agency= |arxiv= |asin= |bibcode= |doi= |isbn= |issn= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |osti= |pmc= |pmid= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |id= |access-date=15 April 2021 |url-status= |archive-url= |archive-date= |quote=Pilot of a Barbadian comedy-drama.}}

== External links ==
* [https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/bjs Bajan] language, SIL.org

{{Barbados topics}}
{{Anglophone Caribbean Creoles}}
{{English-based creoles}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Culture of Barbados]]
[[Category:English-based pidgins and creoles]]
[[Category:English language in the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Creoles of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Languages of Barbados]]
[[Category:Languages of the African diaspora]]