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{{Main|Glossary of Buddhism}}

===Life and the world===
[[File:Bhavachakra.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Traditional Tibetan Buddhist Thangka depicting the Wheel of Life|Traditional [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] [[Thangka]] depicting the [[Bhavacakra|Wheel of Life]] with its six realms]]

====Saṃsāra====
{{Main|Saṃsāra (Buddhism)}}
Within Buddhism, samsara is defined as the continual repetitive cycle of birth and death that arises from ordinary beings' grasping and fixating on a self and experiences. 
Specifically, samsara refers to the process of cycling through one rebirth after another within the six realms of existence,{{refn|group=note|name=realms|Earlier Buddhist texts refer to five realms rather than six realms; when described as five realms, the god realm and demi-god realm constitute a single realm.}} where each realm can be understood as physical realm or a psychological state characterized by a particular type of suffering. Samsara arises out of ''[[Avidyā (Buddhism)|avidya]]'' (ignorance) and is characterized by ''[[dukkha]]'' (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction). In the Buddhist view, liberation from samsara is possible by following the Buddhist path.

====Karma====
{{Main|Karma in Buddhism}}
[[Karma in Buddhism|In Buddhism]], [[Karma]] (from [[Sanskrit]]: "action, work") is the force that drives [[saṃsāra]]—the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. Good, skillful deeds (Pali: "kusala") and bad, unskillful (Pāli: "akusala") actions produce "seeds" in the mind that come to fruition either in this life or in a subsequent [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|rebirth]].{{sfn|Kasulis |2006|pp=1–12}} The avoidance of unwholesome actions and the cultivation of positive actions is called [[śīla|sīla]]. Karma specifically refers to those actions of body, speech or mind that spring from mental intent ([[cetanā]]),{{sfn|Harvey|1990|p=40}} and bring about a consequence or ''[[phala]]'' "fruit" or [[vipāka]] "result".

In Theravada Buddhism there can be no divine salvation or forgiveness for one's karma, since it is a purely impersonal process that is a part of the makeup of the universe. {{citation needed|date=September 2015}} In Mahayana Buddhism, the texts of certain [[Mahayana sutras]] (such as the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'', the ''[[Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra]]'' and the ''[[Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra]]'') claim that the recitation or merely the hearing of their texts can expunge great swathes of negative karma. Some forms of Buddhism (for example, [[Vajrayana]]) regard the recitation of [[mantra]]s as a means for cutting off of previous negative karma.{{sfn|Payne |2006|p=74}} The Japanese [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]] teacher [[Genshin]] taught that [[Amitābha]] has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in saṃsāra.{{sfn|Lopez|2001|p=239}}{{sfn|Lopez|1995|p=248}}

====Rebirth====
[[File:Kushinara1.jpg|thumb|alt=A very large hill behind two palm trees and a boulevard, people walking are about one fifth the hill's height|Gautama's cremation site, Ramabhar Stupa in [[Kushinagar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]] ]]
{{Main|Rebirth (Buddhism)}}
Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of [[Sentient beings (Buddhism)|sentient life]], each running from conception{{sfn|Keown|1996|p=107}} to death. The doctrine of [[anatta|anattā]] (Sanskrit ''anātman'') rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called in [[Hinduism]] and Christianity. According to Buddhism there ultimately is no such thing as a self independent from the rest of the universe. Buddhists also refer to themselves as the believers of the anatta doctrine—Nairatmyavadin or Anattavadin. Rebirth in subsequent existences must be understood as the continuation of a dynamic, ever-changing process of [[pratītyasamutpāda]] ("dependent arising") determined by the laws of cause and effect (karma) rather than that of one being, [[Reincarnation|reincarnating]] from one existence to the next.

Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms according to Theravadins, or six according to other schools.{{sfn|Harvey|1990|p=34}}{{sfn|Buswell|2004|p=711}}
# [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Naraka beings]]: those who live in one of many Narakas (Hells);
# [[Preta]]: sometimes sharing some space with humans, but invisible to most people; an important variety is the [[hungry ghost]];{{sfn|Harvey|1990|p=33}}
# [[Animals in Buddhism|Animals]]: sharing space with humans, but considered another type of life;
# [[Human beings in Buddhism|Human beings]]: one of the realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible;
# [[Asura (Buddhism)|Asuras]]: variously translated as lowly deities, demons, titans, or anti-gods; not recognized by Theravada tradition as a separate realm;{{refn|group=note|name='Les Sectes|André Bareau: the top of p. 212 says: "Here are the theses of the Theravadins of the Mahavihara"; then begins a numbered list of doctrines over the following pages, including on p. 223: "There are only five destinies ... the kalakanjika asuras have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the petas, with whom ... they marry. As for the Vepacittiparisa, they have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the gods, with whom they marry."(Translated from the French){{sfn|Bareau|1955|p=212–223}}}} 
# [[Deva (Buddhism)|Devas]] including [[Brahmā (Buddhism)|Brahmās]]: variously translated as gods, deities, spirits, angels, or left untranslated.

The above are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence.<ref group=web>{{cite web|last=Mahathera|first= Ven. Suvanno | authorlink =|title=The 31 Planes of Existence|publisher =www.buddhanet.net|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130807234453/http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/allexistence.pdf |accessdate=}}</ref> Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the [[Buddhist cosmology#Pure Abodes|Śuddhāvāsa Worlds]] or Pure Abodes, can be attained only by skilled Buddhist practitioners known as [[anāgāmi]]s (non-returners). Rebirths in the [[Buddhist cosmology#Formless Realm (Ārūpyadhātu)|Ārūpyadhātu]] (formless realms) can be attained by only those who can meditate on the [[arūpajhāna]]s, the highest object of meditation.

According to East Asian and [[Tibetan Buddhism]], there is an intermediate state (Tibetan "[[bardo]]") between one life and the next. The orthodox Theravada position rejects this; however there are passages in the ''[[Samyutta Nikaya]]'' of the Pali Canon that seem to lend support to the idea that the Buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next.{{sfn|Buswell|2004|p=377}}{{sfn|Bodhi|2000|p=}}{{Page needed|date=March 2015}}

===Suffering's causes and solution===

====The Four Noble Truths====
{{Main|Four Noble Truths}}
[[File:Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Dharmacakra Discourse.jpeg|thumb|alt=color manuscript illustration of Buddha teaching the Four Noble Truths, Nalanda, Bihar, India|The Buddha teaching the Four Noble Truths. [[Sanskrit]] manuscript. [[Nalanda]], Bihar, India.]]
The teachings on the Four Noble Truths are regarded as central to the teachings of Buddhism, and are said to provide a conceptual framework for Buddhist thought. These four truths explain the nature of ''[[dukkha]]'' (suffering, anxiety, unsatisfactoriness), its causes, and how it can be overcome. The four truths are:{{refn|group=note|name=fnt1|See the article [[Four Noble Truths]] for further details and citations. In particular, the section "[[Four Noble Truths#The four truths|The four truths]]" within that article provides a footnote showing variety of translations of these four statements.}}
# The truth of ''dukkha'' (suffering, anxiety, unsatisfactoriness{{refn|group=note|name=translation|For clarification of translations, see [[Dukkha#Translating the term dukkha]].}})
# The truth of the origin of ''dukkha''
# The truth of the cessation of ''dukkha''
# The truth of the path leading to the cessation of ''dukkha''

The first truth explains the nature of ''[[dukkha]]''. ''Dukkha'' is commonly translated as "suffering", "anxiety", "unsatisfactoriness", "unease", etc., and it is said to have the following three aspects: 
*The obvious suffering of physical and mental illness, growing old, and dying.
*The anxiety or stress of trying to hold onto things that are constantly changing.
*A subtle dissatisfaction pervading all forms of life due to the fact that all forms of life are changing, impermanent and without any inner core or substance. On this level, the term indicates a lack of satisfaction, a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards.{{refn|group=note|See the article [[Dukkha]] for further details and citations.}}

The second truth is that the ''[[samudaya|origin]]'' of ''dukkha'' can be known. Within the context of the four noble truths, the origin of ''dukkha'' is commonly explained as craving (Pali: ''[[tanha]]'') conditioned by ignorance (Pali: ''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avijja]]''). On a deeper level, the root cause of ''dukkha'' is identified as ignorance (Pali: ''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avijja]]'') of the true nature of things. The third noble truth is that the complete ''[[nirodha|cessation]]'' of ''dukkha'' is possible, and the fourth noble truth identifies a ''[[Noble Eightfold Path|path]]'' to this cessation.{{refn|group=note|name=fnt2|See the article [[Four Noble Truths]] for further details and citations.}}

====Noble Eightfold Path====
{{Main|Noble Eightfold Path|Buddhist Paths to liberation}}
[[File:Dharma Wheel.svg|thumb|alt=ships wheel with eight spokes represents the Noble Eightfold Path|The ''[[Dharmachakra]]'' represents the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]]]
The [[Noble Eightfold Path]]—the fourth of the Buddha's [[Four Noble Truths|Noble Truths]]—consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions, that when developed together, lead to the cessation of [[dukkha]].{{sfn|Ajahn Sucitto|2010|p=87-88}} These eight factors are: Right View (or Right Understanding), Right Intention (or Right Thought), Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

[[Ajahn Sucitto]] describes the path as "a mandala of interconnected factors that support and moderate each other."{{sfn|Ajahn Sucitto|2010|p=87-88}} The eight factors of the path are ''not'' to be understood as stages, in which each stage is completed before moving on to the next. Rather, they are understood as eight significant dimensions of one's behaviour—mental, spoken, and bodily—that operate in dependence on one another; taken together, they define a complete ''path'', or way of living.{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=82}}

The eight factors of the path are commonly presented within three divisions (or higher trainings) as shown below:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Division
! Eightfold factor
! ''Sanskrit, Pali''
! Description
|- style="background:#cff;"
|rowspan="2"|Wisdom<br />(Sanskrit: ''[[Wisdom in Buddhism|prajñā]]'',<br />Pāli: ''paññā'')
|1. Right view
|''samyag dṛṣṭi,<br />sammā ditthi''
|Viewing reality as it is, not just as it appears to be
|- style="background:#cff;"
|2. Right intention
|''samyag saṃkalpa,<br />sammā sankappa''
|Intention of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness
|- style="background:#cfc;"
|rowspan="3"|Ethical conduct<br />(Sanskrit: ''[[śīla]]'',<br />Pāli: ''sīla'')
|3. Right speech
|''samyag vāc,<br />sammā vāca''
|Speaking in a truthful and non-hurtful way
|- style="background:#cfc;" 
|4. Right action
|''samyag karman,<br />sammā kammanta''
|Acting in a non-harmful way
|- style="background:#cfc;" 
|5. Right livelihood
|''samyag ājīvana,<br />sammā ājīva''
|A non-harmful livelihood
|- style="background:#fc9;"
|rowspan="3"|Concentration<br />(Sanskrit and Pāli: ''[[samādhi]]'')
|6. Right effort
|''samyag vyāyāma,<br />sammā vāyāma''
|Making an effort to improve
|- style="background:#fc9;"
|7. Right mindfulness
|''samyag smṛti,<br />sammā sati''
|Awareness to see things for what they are with clear consciousness;<br />being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion
|- style="background:#fc9;"
|8. Right concentration
|''samyag samādhi,<br />sammā samādhi''
|Correct meditation or concentration, explained as the first four jhānas
|}


====Middle Way====
{{Main|Middle Way}}
An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] (or Middle Path), which is said to have been discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment. The Middle Way has several definitions:
# The practice of non-extremism: a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification;
# The middle ground between certain [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] [[View (Buddhism)|views]] (for example, that things ultimately either do or do not exist);{{sfn|Kohn|1991|pp=131,143}}
# An explanation of [[Nirvana (concept)|Nirvana]] (perfect enlightenment), a state wherein it becomes clear that all dualities apparent in the world are delusory;
# Another term for [[Śūnyatā|emptiness]], the ultimate nature of all phenomena (in the [[Mahayana]] branch), a lack of inherent existence, which avoids the extremes of permanence and nihilism or inherent existence and nothingness.

===Nature of existence===
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2013}}
[[File:Debating Monks.JPG|thumb|alt=monks wearing crimson robes debating at Sera Monastery, Tibet|[[Bhikku|Monks]] debating at [[Sera Monastery]], Tibet]]
Buddhist scholars have produced a number of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts (see, for example, [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]). Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, and some regard it as essential practice.

The concept of liberation ([[nirvāṇa]])—the goal of the Buddhist path—is closely related to overcoming ignorance ([[Avidyā (Buddhism)|avidyā]]), a fundamental misunderstanding or mis-perception of the nature of reality. In awakening to the true nature of the self and all phenomena one develops dispassion for the objects of [[upādāna|clinging]], and is liberated from suffering ([[dukkha]]) and the cycle of incessant rebirths ([[saṃsāra]]). To this end, the Buddha recommended viewing things as characterized by the [[three marks of existence]].

====Three Marks of Existence====
{{Main|Three marks of existence}}
The Three Marks of Existence are impermanence, suffering, and not-self.

Impermanence (Pāli: ''[[anicca]]'') expresses the Buddhist notion that all [[sankhara|compounded or conditioned phenomena]] (all things and experiences) are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent. Everything we can experience through our senses is made up of parts, and its existence is dependent on external conditions. Everything is in constant flux, and so conditions and the thing itself are constantly changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. Since nothing lasts, there is no inherent or fixed nature to any object or experience. According to the doctrine of impermanence, life embodies this flux in the aging process, the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra), and in any experience of loss. The doctrine asserts that because things are impermanent, attachment to them is futile and leads to suffering (dukkha).

Suffering (Pāli: दुक्ख ''[[dukkha]]''; Sanskrit दुःख ''{{IAST|duḥkha}}'') is also a central concept in Buddhism. The word roughly corresponds to a number of terms in English including [[suffering]], [[pain]], unsatisfactoriness, sorrow, affliction, [[anxiety]], dissatisfaction, discomfort, [[anguish]], [[Stress (medicine)|stress]], misery, and [[frustration]]. Although the term is often translated as "suffering", its philosophical meaning is more analogous to "disquietude" as in the condition of being disturbed. As such, "suffering" is too narrow a translation with "negative emotional connotations"<ref group=web>{{cite web|last=Po|first= Jeffrey | authorlink =|title=Is Buddhism a Pessimistic Way of Life? | publisher =|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120721062830/http://www.4ui.com/eart/172eart1.htm |accessdate=}}</ref> that can give the impression that the Buddhist view is [[pessimism|pessimistic]], but Buddhism seeks to be neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but realistic. In English-language Buddhist literature translated from Pāli, "dukkha" is often left untranslated, so as to encompass its full range of meaning.{{refn|group=note|name=Rahula B|Rahula: What the Buddha Taught, Chapter 2}}{{sfn|Prebish|1993|p=}}{{sfn|Keown|2003|p=}}

[[File:Angkor Thom (6648411831).jpg|thumb|alt=statue of Buddha in lotus position at Angkor Thom in Cambodia|[[Angkor Thom]] in Cambodia]]
Not-self (Pāli: ''[[anatta]]''; Sanskrit: ''anātman'') is the third mark of existence. Upon careful examination, one finds that no phenomenon is really "I" or "mine"; these concepts are in fact constructed by the mind. In the ''[[Nikayas]]'' anatta is not meant as a metaphysical assertion, but as an approach for gaining release from suffering. In fact, the Buddha rejected both of the metaphysical assertions "I have a [[Atman (Hinduism)|Self]]" and "I have no Self" as [[ontology|ontological]] [[View (Buddhism)|views]] that bind one to suffering.{{refn|group=note|name=I have no Self|Thanissaro Bhikkhu, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/notself.html ''The Not-Self Strategy''], See Point 3{{spaced ndash}}The Canon quote Thanissaro Bhikkhu draws attention to is the ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.002.than.html#ayoniso Sabbasava Sutta].''}} When asked if the self was identical with the body, the Buddha [[Fourteen unanswerable questions|refused to answer]]. By analyzing the constantly changing physical and mental constituents ([[skandha]]s) of a person or object, the practitioner comes to the conclusion that neither the respective parts nor the person as a whole comprise a self.

====Dependent arising====
{{Main|Pratītyasamutpāda}}
The doctrine of [[pratītyasamutpāda]], (Sanskrit; Pali: ''paticcasamuppāda''; Tibetan {{bo|w=rten cing 'brel bar 'byung ba}}; {{zh|c=緣起}}) is an important part of Buddhist metaphysics. It states that phenomena arise together in a mutually interdependent web of cause and effect. It is variously rendered into English as "dependent origination", "conditioned genesis", "dependent relationship", "dependent co-arising", "interdependent arising", or "contingency".

The best-known application of the concept of pratītyasamutpāda is the scheme of [[Twelve Nidānas]] (from Pāli "nidāna" meaning "cause, foundation, source or origin"), which explain the continuation of the cycle of suffering and rebirth ([[saṃsāra]]) in detail.{{refn|group=note|name=twelve nidana|This twelve nidana scheme can be found, for instance, in multiple discourses in chapter 12 of the ''[[Samyutta Nikaya]]''—''Nidana Vagga'' (e.g., see SN 12.2, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.002.than.html Thanissaro, 1997a)]. Other "applications" of what might be termed "mundane dependent origination" include the nine-nidana scheme of ''[[Digha Nikaya]]'' 15 (e.g., [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.15.0.than.html Thanissaro, 1997b)] and the ten-nidana scheme of ''Samyutta Nikaya'' 12.65 (e.g., [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.065.than.html Thanissaro, 1997c).] So-called "transcendental dependent origination" (also involving twelve nidanas) is described in ''Samyutta Nikaya'' 12.23 (e.g., see [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/wheel277.html Bodhi, 1995).] In addition, Digha Nikaya 15 describes an eleven-nidana scheme (starting with "feeling") that leads to interpersonal suffering ("the taking up of sticks and knives; conflicts, quarrels, and disputes; accusations, divisive speech, and lies")}}

{{Main|Twelve Nidānas}}
The Twelve Nidānas describe a causal connection between the subsequent characteristics or conditions of cyclic existence, each one giving rise to the next:

# [[Avidyā (Buddhism)|Avidyā]]: ignorance, specifically spiritual ignorance of the nature of reality;{{sfn|Harvey|1990|p=56}}
# [[Saṅkhāra|Saṃskāras]]: literally formations, explained as referring to [[karma]];
# [[Vijñāna]]: [[consciousness]], specifically discriminative;{{sfn|Harvey|1990|p=57}}
# [[Nāmarūpa]]: literally name and form, referring to mind and body;{{sfn|Harvey|1990|p=58}}
# [[Ṣaḍāyatana]]: the six sense bases: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind-organ;
# [[Sparśa]]: variously translated contact, impression, stimulation (by a sense object);
# [[Vedanā]]: usually translated feeling: this is the "hedonic tone", i.e. whether something is pleasant, unpleasant or neutral;
# [[Tṛṣṇā]]: literally thirst, but in Buddhism nearly always used to mean craving;
# [[Upādāna]]: clinging or grasping; the word also means fuel, which feeds the continuing cycle of rebirth;
# [[Bhava]]: literally being (existence) or becoming. (The Theravada explains this as having two meanings: karma, which produces a new existence, and the existence itself.);{{sfn|Harvey|1990|p=59}}
# [[Jāti (Buddhism)|Jāti]]: literally birth, but life is understood as starting at conception;{{sfn|Harvey|1990|p=60}}
# [[Jarāmaraṇa]]: (old age and death) and also soka, parideva, dukkha, domanassa and upāyāsā (sorrow, lamentation, pain, affliction and despair).<ref group=web>{{cite web|title=Upādāparitassanā Sutta|url=http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/samyutta/khandha/sn22-008.html|accessdate=18 September 2013|publisher=Buddha-Vacana}}</ref>

[[Sentient beings (Buddhism)|Sentient beings]] always suffer throughout saṃsāra until they free themselves from this suffering ([[dukkha]]) by attaining [[Nirvana (concept)|Nirvana]]. Then the absence of the first Nidāna—ignorance—leads to the absence of the others.

====Emptiness====
{{Main|Śūnyatā}}
[[Mahayana]] Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna]] (perhaps c. 150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahayana tradition. Nagarjuna's primary contribution to [[Buddhist philosophy]] was the systematic exposition of the concept of [[śūnyatā]], or "emptiness", widely attested in the [[Prajnaparamita|Prajñāpāramitā]] sutras that emerged in his era. The concept of emptiness brings together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anatta and [[pratītyasamutpāda|dependent origination]], to refute the metaphysics of [[Sarvastivada]] and [[Sautrantika]] (extinct non-Mahayana schools). For Nagarjuna, it is not merely sentient beings that are empty of [[Atman (Buddhism)|ātman]]; all phenomena ([[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]) are without any [[svabhava]] (literally "own-nature" or "self-nature"), and thus without any underlying essence; they are "empty" of being independent; thus the heterodox theories of svabhava circulating at the time were refuted on the basis of the doctrines of early Buddhism. Nagarjuna's school of thought is known as the [[Mādhyamaka]]. Some of the writings attributed to Nagarjuna made explicit references to Mahayana texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the [[Āgama (Buddhism)|agamas]]. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent [[exegesis]] of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system.{{sfn|Lindtner|1997|p=324}}

Sarvastivada teachings—which were criticized by Nāgārjuna—were reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga]] and were adapted into the [[Yogacara]] school. While the Mādhyamaka school held that asserting the existence or non-existence of any ultimately real thing was inappropriate, some exponents of Yogacara asserted that the mind and only the mind is ultimately real (a doctrine known as [[cittamatra]]). Not all Yogacarins asserted that mind was truly existent; Vasubandhu and Asanga in particular did not.<ref group=web>{{cite web|last=Lusthaus|first= Dan | authorlink =|title=What is and isn't Yogacara | publisher =|url= http://www.acmuller.net/yogacara/articles/intro-uni.htm |accessdate=}}</ref> These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahayana metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.

Besides emptiness, Mahayana schools often place emphasis on the notions of perfected spiritual insight (prajñāpāramitā) and [[Buddha-nature]] (''tathāgatagarbha''). There are conflicting interpretations of the ''tathāgatagarbha'' in Mahāyāna thought. The idea may be traced to ''[[Abhidharma]]'', and ultimately to statements of the Buddha in the ''Nikāyas''. In [[Tibetan Buddhism]], according to the [[Sakya]] school, tathāgatagarbha is the inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one's mind. In [[Nyingma]], tathāgatagarbha also generally refers to inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one's mind. According to the [[Gelug]] school, it is the potential for sentient beings to awaken since they are empty (i.e. dependently originated). According to the [[Jonang]] school, it refers to the innate qualities of the mind that expresses themselves as omniscience etc. when adventitious obscurations are removed. The "[[Tathāgatagarbha Sutras]]" are a collection of Mahayana sutras that present a unique model of Buddha-nature. Even though this collection was generally ignored in India,{{sfn|Williams|2000|p=161}} East Asian Buddhism provides some significance to these texts.

===Liberation===

====Nirvana====
[[File:Mahabodhitemple.jpg|thumb|left|alt=stone Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya, India, where Gautama Buddha attained Nirvana under the Bodhi Tree|[[Mahabodhi|Mahabodhi temple]] in [[Bodhgaya]], India, where Gautama Buddha attained [[Nirvana (concept)|Nirvana]] under the [[Bodhi Tree]] (left)]]
{{Main|Nirvana (Buddhism)}}
[[Nirvana (concept)|Nirvana]] (Sanskrit; Pali: "Nibbāna") means "cessation", "extinction" (of [[Tanha|craving]] and [[avijja|ignorance]] and therefore [[dukkha|suffering]] and the cycle of involuntary rebirths ([[saṃsāra]])), "extinguished", "quieted", "calmed"; it is also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. The term for anybody who has achieved ''nirvana'', including the Buddha, is ''[[arahant]]''.

''[[Bodhi]]'' (Pāli and Sanskrit, in [[devanagari]]: बॊधि) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of arahants. ''Bodhi'' literally means "awakening", but it is more commonly translated into English as "enlightenment". In [[Early Buddhism]], ''bodhi'' carried a meaning synonymous to ''nirvana'', using only some different metaphors to describe the experience, which implies the extinction of ''raga'' (greed, craving),<ref group=web>{{cite web|last=|first= | authorlink =|title=''raga'', Pali-English Dictionary | publisher =The Pali Text Society|url= http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:489.pali |accessdate=}}</ref> ''dosa'' (hate, aversion)<ref group=web>{{cite web|last=|first= | authorlink =|title=''dosa'', Pali-English Dictionary | publisher =The Pali Text Society|url= http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2598.pali |accessdate=}}</ref> and ''moha'' (delusion).<ref group=web>{{cite web|last=|first= | authorlink =|title=''moha'', Pali-English Dictionary | publisher =The Pali Text Society|url= http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:229.pali |accessdate=}}</ref> In the later school of [[Mahayana Buddhism]], the status of ''nirvana'' was downgraded in some scriptures, coming to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained ''nirvana'', and that one needed to attain ''bodhi'' to eradicate delusion:

{{Quote|An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (passion and hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as [[gnosis]], Enlightenment.|Richard F. Gombrich|''How Buddhism Began''{{sfn|Gombrich|1997|p=}}}}

Therefore, according to Mahayana Buddhism, the ''[[arahant]]'' has attained only ''nirvana'', thus still being subject to delusion, while the ''[[bodhisattva]]'' not only achieves ''nirvana'' but full liberation from delusion as well. He thus attains ''bodhi'' and becomes a ''buddha.'' In Theravada Buddhism, ''bodhi'' and ''nirvana'' carry the same meaning as in the early texts, that of being freed from greed, hate and delusion.

The term ''[[parinirvana]]'' is also encountered in Buddhism, and this generally refers to the complete ''nirvana'' attained by the ''arahant'' at the moment of death, when the physical body expires.

====Buddhas====
{{Main|Buddhahood}}
According to Buddhist traditions a Buddha is a fully awakened being who has completely purified his mind of the [[Three poisons (Buddhism)|three poisons]] of [[Taṇhā|desire]], aversion and [[Avidyā (Buddhism)|ignorance]]. A Buddha is no longer bound by [[Samsara]] and has ended the [[dukkha|suffering]] which unawakened people experience in life.

Buddhists do not consider [[Siddhartha Gautama]] to have been the only Buddha. The [[Pali Canon]] refers to many previous ones (see [[List of the 28 Buddhas]]), while the [[Mahayana]] tradition additionally has many Buddhas of celestial, rather than historical, origin (see [[Amitabha]] or [[Vairocana]] as examples, for lists of many thousands Buddha names see ''[[Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō]]'' numbers 439–448). A common Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist belief is that the next Buddha will be one named [[Maitreya]] (Pali: Metteyya).

=====Theravada Buddhism=====
[[File:Monywa-shwezigon-paya-d01.jpg|thumb|alt=color monument of Buddha in lotus position, Shwezigon Paya near Bagan, Myanmar|[[Shwezigon Pagoda|Shwezigon Paya]] near [[Bagan]], [[Myanmar]]]]
In Theravada doctrine, a person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of [[Reality in Buddhism|reality]]; such people are called [[arhat|arahants]] and occasionally buddhas. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving, they have reached the end of the cycle of rebirth, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being. The commentaries to the Pali Canon classify these awakened beings into three types:
*''[[Buddhahood|Sammasambuddha]]'', usually just called the Buddha, who discovers the truth by himself and teaches the path to awakening to others
*''[[Pratyekabuddha|Paccekabuddha]]'', who discovers the truth by himself but lacks the skill to teach others
*''[[Savakabuddha]]'', who receive the truth directly or indirectly from a Sammasambuddha

''Bodhi'' and ''nirvana'' carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate, and delusion. In attaining ''bodhi'', the ''arahant'' has overcome these obstacles. As a further distinction, the extinction of only hatred and greed (in the sensory context) with some residue of delusion, is called ''[[anagami]].''

=====Mahayana Buddhism=====
[[File:Kamakura-buddha-2.jpg|left|thumb|alt=bronze Great Statue of Amitābha in Kamakura, Japan|The Great Statue of [[Amitābha]] in [[Kamakura]], Japan]]

In the [[Mahayana]], the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see ''[[Dharmakaya]]'') beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the [[eternal Buddha]] himself.

The Buddha's death is seen as an illusion, he is living on in other planes of existence, and monks are therefore permitted to offer "new truths" based on his input. Mahayana also differs from Theravada in its concept of [[śūnyatā]] (that ultimately nothing has existence), and in its belief in [[bodhisattva]]s (enlightened people who vow to continue being reborn until all beings can be enlightened).{{sfn|Gombrich|1999|pp=40, 46}}

<!-- I've hidden these passages temporarily while I consider them
Bodhi is attained when the [[Four Noble Truths]] are fully grasped, and all [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]] has reached cessation. Although the earliest sources do not have any mention of ''Paramitas,''<ref>"It is evident that the Hinayanists, either to popularize their religion or to interest the laity more in it, incorporated in their doctrines the conception of Bodhisattva and the practice of ''paramitas.'' This was effected by the production of new literature: the ''Jatakas'' and ''Avadanas''." ''Buddhist Sects in India,'' Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, p. 251. The term 'Semi-Mahayana' occurs here as a subtitle</ref><ref>"the Theravadins' early literature did not refer to the ''paramitas''." ''Buddhist Sects in India,'' Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, Dutt, p. 228</ref> the later traditions of Theravada and Mahayana state that one also needs to fulfill the ''[[Paramita|pāramitās]].'' After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the compulsive cycle of [[saṃsāra|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]: birth, suffering, death and rebirth, and attains the "highest happiness" (Nirvana, as described in the ''[[Dhammapada]]''). Belief in self (''[[Atman (Buddhism)|ātmān]],'' Pāli ''attā'') has also been extinguished as part of the eradication of delusion, and Bodhi thus implies understanding of ''[[anatta|anattā]]'' (Sanskrit: ''Anatman'').

Some Mahayana sources contain the idea that a ''bodhisattva,'' which in other Mahayana sources is someone on the path to Buddhahood, deliberately refrains from becoming a Buddha in order to help others.{{sfn|Buswell |2004|p=351}}<ref>Cook. ''Hua-yen Buddhism''. pp. 110f</ref>

'''[[Mahayana]]''' ("Great Vehicle") is an inclusive, cosmically-dimensioned faith characterized by the adoption of additional texts. Mahayana Buddhists place emphasis on the [[Bodhisattva]] ideal. Mahayana practitioners are less concerned with the traditional early Buddhist emphasis on release from suffering (''[[dukkha]]'') characteristic of the Arahant, and instead vow to remain in the world to liberate all beings, without exception, from suffering. Mahayana is further typified by a pantheon of quasi-divine Bodhisattvas devoting themselves to personal excellence for the sake of rescuing others from suffering and delivering them into the bliss of Nirvana. The quest of the Bodhisattvas is for ultimate Buddhic knowledge, so as to effect the salvation of all humanity (and indeed all living beings, including animals, ghosts and gods).

The Mahayana branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (''maha-karuna'') or the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the Bodhisattva to attain the "Awakened Mind" (''[[bodhicitta]]'') of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings into [[Nirvana (concept)|Nirvana]].

-->

The method of self-exertion or "self-power"—without reliance on an external force or being—stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], which is characterized by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of [[Amitabha]] Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in Amitabha Buddha and the chanting of homage to his name liberates one at death into the Blissful (安樂), Pure Land (淨土) of Amitabha Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from [[saṃsāra (Buddhism)|samsaric]] suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only one has faith in the power of that vow or chants his name.

====Buddha eras====
{{Original research section|date=September 2015}}
Buddhists believe [[Gautama Buddha]] was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism. A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest ''known'' Buddha. This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge, evidence and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of human existence.<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bullitt/bfaq.html#maitreya|title=''Access to Insight'', a Theravada Buddhist website, discusses Buddha Eras|publisher=Accesstoinsight.org|date=2010-06-05|accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref group=web>{{cite web|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.26.0.than.html|title=Gautama Buddha discusses the Maitreya Buddha in the Tipitaka|publisher=Accesstoinsight.org|date=2010-06-08|accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The Gautama Buddha, therefore, is ''the Buddha of this era'', who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas).

In addition, Mahayana Buddhists believe there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes.{{sfn|Mizuno|1996|p=57}} A Theravada commentary says that Buddhas arise one at a time in this world element, and not at all in others.{{sfn|Buddhaghosa |1991|p=184}} The understandings of this matter reflect widely differing interpretations of basic terms, such as "world realm", between the various schools of Buddhism.

The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in [[East Asian Buddhism]]. [[Pure Land Buddhism]] holds that it has declined to the point where few are capable of following the path, so it may be best to rely on the power of [[Amitābha]].

====Bodhisattvas====
{{Main|Bodhisattva}}
[[File:Ken Dedes as Boddhisattva.JPG|thumb|alt=stone statue of Prajñāpāramitā personified, Java|A statue of [[Prajnaparamita|Prajñāpāramitā]] personified, [[Java]]]]
''Bodhisattva'' means "enlightenment being", and generally refers to one who is on the path to buddhahood. Traditionally, a bodhisattva is anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated ''[[bodhicitta]]'', which is a spontaneous wish to attain [[Buddhahood]] for the benefit of all [[Sentient beings (Buddhism)|sentient beings]].{{sfn|Gyatso|1995|p=1}} Theravada Buddhism primarily uses the term in relation to Gautama Buddha's previous existences, but has traditionally acknowledged and respected the bodhisattva path as well.<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110318131023/http://www.buddhanet.net/budsas/ebud/ebdha126.htm|title=Bodhisattva Ideal in Buddhism|accessdate=2010-10-18|publisher=Access to Insight}}</ref>

According to Jan Nattier, the term ''Mahāyāna'' "Great Vehicle" was originally even an honorary synonym for ''Bodhisattvayāna'' "Bodhisattva Vehicle."{{sfn|Nattier|2003|p=174}} The ''{{IAST|Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra}}'', an early and important Mahayana text, contains a simple and brief definition for the term ''bodhisattva'': 
"Because he has enlightenment as his aim, a bodhisattva-[[mahāsattva]] is so called."{{sfn|Mall|2005|pp=53–54}}{{sfn|Hirakawa |1993|p=297}}{{sfn|Conze|2001|p=2001}}

Mahayana Buddhism encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas and to take the [[bodhisattva vow]], where the practitioner promises to work for the complete enlightenment of all beings by practicing the six [[pāramitā]]s.{{sfn|Gyatso|1995|pp=4–12}} According to Mahayana teachings, these perfections are: [[dāna]], [[śīla]], [[kshanti|kṣanti]], [[vīrya]], [[Dhyāna in Buddhism|dhyāna]], and [[Prajñā (Buddhism)|prajñā]].

A famous saying by the 8th-century Indian Buddhist scholar-saint [[Shantideva]], which the [[14th Dalai Lama]] often cites as his favourite verse, summarizes the Bodhisattva's intention ([[Bodhicitta]]) as follows: "For as long as space endures, and for as long as living beings remain, until then may I too abide to dispel the misery of the world."{{Citation needed|date=March 2015}}