Vietnamese people: Difference between revisions
Qiushufang (talk | contribs) please use a better source - this is a site mostly about music and other pop culture - a search turns up "Ngoài Kia — Tạp chí Underground Hip-hop Việt Nam" |
Qiushufang (talk | contribs) an ethnicity does not belong to a nation state |
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{{Short description|Southeast Asian ethnic group}} |
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{{Redirect|Người Việt|the California newspaper|Nguoi Viet Daily News}} |
{{Redirect|Người Việt|the California newspaper|Nguoi Viet Daily News}} |
Revision as of 21:02, 31 July 2024
người Việt / người Kinh | |
---|---|
Total population | |
c. 89 million | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Vietnam | 82,085,826 (2019)[1] |
United States | 2,300,000 (2022)[2] |
Cambodia | 400,000–1,000,000[3] |
Japan | 565,026 (2023)[4] |
France | 300,000[5]–350,000[6][7] |
Australia | 334,781 (2021)[8] |
Canada | 275,530 (2021)[9] |
Taiwan | 259,375 (2024)[a]–470,000[18][19] |
Germany | 215,000 (2024)[20] |
South Korea | 209,373 (2022)[b] |
Russia | 13,954[22]–150,000[23] |
Thailand | 100,000[24][25]–500,000[26] |
Laos | 100,000[27] |
United Kingdom | 90,000[28]–100,000[29][30] |
Malaysia | 80,000[31] |
Czech Republic | 60,000–80,000[32] |
Poland | 40,000–50,000[32] |
Angola | 40,000[33][34] |
China (excluding Hong Kong and Macau) | 42,000[35][36]–303,000[37][c]/33,112 (2020)[38][d] |
Norway | 28,114 (2022)[39] |
Netherlands | 24,594 (2021)[40] |
Sweden | 21,528 (2021)[41] |
United Arab Emirates | 20,000[42] |
Saudi Arabia | 20,000[43][44][45] |
Slovakia | 7,235[46]–20,000[47] |
Denmark | 16,141 (2022)[48] |
Singapore | 15,000[49] |
Belgium | 12,000–15,000[50] |
Finland | 13,291 (2021)[51] |
Cyprus | 12,000[52][53] |
New Zealand | 10,086 (2018)[54] |
Switzerland | 8,000[55] |
Hungary | 7,304 (2016)[56] |
Ukraine | 7,000[57][58] |
Ireland | 5,000[59] |
Italy | 5,000[60] |
Austria | 5,000[61][62] |
Romania | 3,000[63] |
Bulgaria | 2,500[64] |
Languages | |
Vietnamese | |
Religion | |
Predominantly Vietnamese folk religion syncretized with East Asian Mahayana Buddhism. Minorities of Christians (mostly Roman Catholics) and other groups.[65] | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Other Vietic groups (especially Gin) |
The Vietnamese people (Vietnamese: người Việt, lit. 'Việt people') or the Kinh people (Vietnamese: người Kinh, lit. 'Metropolitan people'), also called the Viet people,[66] the Kinh Vietnamese, the Viets, or the Kinh, are a Southeast Asian ethnic group and nation native to modern-day Northern Vietnam that share a common identity, language, religion, culture, history, and country.
Because Vietnam has been multi-ethnic with 54 recognized ethnicities since 1979, the Vietnamese people as a nation has composed of 54 ethnic groups, of which ethnic Vietnamese have officially been designated as "Kinh people" to distinguish them from other recognized Vietnamese groups. The Kinh are related to ethnic Gin, a recognized minority in China; classifying them as Kinh or not is flexible. The Kinh Vietnamese are also a recognized minority in Czechia and Slovakia. In Vietnam, the Kinh people are main ethnicity occupying the majority of the country's citizens. They are now often considered one of Vietic speaking-groups with the Mường being linguistically closest. Chinese also has a heavy influence on Vietnamese language.[67][68][69][70][71][72][73] Although originating from the Đông Sơn culture, Vietnamese culture is now part of the Sinosphere.
Terminology
According to Churchman (2010), all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese such as Viet (related to ancient Chinese geographical imagination), Kinh (related to medieval administrative designation), or Keeu and Kæw (derived from Jiāo 交, ancient Chinese toponym for Northern Vietnam, Old Chinese *kraw) by Kra-Dai speaking peoples, are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of the time, the ancestors of the modern Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical social self-designation inherent in the modern Vietnamese first-person pronoun ta (us, we, I) to differentiate themselves with other groups. In the older colloquial usage, ta corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial time they were "nước ta" (our country) and "tiếng ta" (our language) in contrast to "nước tây" (western countries) and "tiếng tây" (western languages).[74]
Viet
The term "Viet" or "Việt" (Yue) (Chinese: 越; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Wade–Giles: Yüeh4; Vietnamese: Việt) in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty of China (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[75] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[76][77] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south.[76] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[75][76] From the 3rd century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue (Vietnamese: Âu Việt), Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet; Vietnamese: Bách Việt; "Hundred Yue/Viet"; ).[75][76] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[78][79] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese referred to themselves as người Việt 𠊛越 (Viet people) or người Nam 𠊛南 (southern people).[80] The name "Viet" has appeared in Vietnam's national names since the country's leader Đinh Bộ Lĩnh changed Vietnamese name to "Đại Cồ Việt" in 968[81][82] (except 1400-1407 period), and the name "Vietnam" has been the country's official name since emperor Gia Long adopted this name with permission from the Qing dynasty in 1804.[83][84][85] In 1839, under the rule of Emperor Minh Mạng's, the official name of Vietnam was "Đại Việt Nam" (大越南, which means "Great Vietnam"), and it was shortened to Đại Nam (大南, which means "Great South").[86] In June 1945, the name "Vietnam" was normalized to its original status.[87]
Kinh
Beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries, a strand of Việt-Mường (northern Vietic language) of Austroasiatic languages with influence from a hypothetic Chinese dialect in Northern Vietnam, dubbed as Annamese Middle Chinese, started to become what is now the Vietnamese language.[88][89][90] Its speakers called themselves the "Kinh" people, meaning people of the "metropolitan" centered around the Red River Delta with Hanoi as its capital. Historic and modern chữ Nôm scripture classically uses the Han character '京', pronounced "Jīng" in Mandarin, and "Kinh" with Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation. Other variants of Proto-Viet-Muong were driven from the lowlands by the Kinh and were called Trại (寨 Mandarin: Zhài), or "outpost" people," by the 13th century. These became the modern Mường people.[91] According to Victor Lieberman, người Kinh (Chữ Nôm: 𠊛京) may be a colonial-era term for Vietnamese speakers inserted anachronistically into translations of pre-colonial documents, but literature on 18th century ethnic formation is lacking.[80] After the Nguyễn dynasty was established in 1802, the name "Kinh" was once used as a concept to refer to all people in the lowlands and people in the mountainous areas were called "Thượng".[92] Both names "Viet" and "Kinh" have been used for ethnic Vietnamese; however the name "Kinh" for ethnic Vietnamese has been recognized by Vietnam since 1979,[93] and the name "Jing" or "Gin" ("Kinh" in Vietnamese) have also been recognized for ethnic Vietnamese in China by China since 1958.[94]
History
Origins and pre-history
Vietnamese people (Kinh) are descended from Northern Vietnam with the Đông Sơn culture, which was close to the Tai peoples[95][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103][104][105] before being heavily sinicized. The forerunner of the Austroasiatic elements in Vietnamese language descended from a subset of Proto-Austroasiatic people who are believed to have originated around the modern borders of southern China, either around Yunnan, Lingnan, or the Yangtze River, as well as mainland Southeast Asia. These proto-Austroasiatics also diverged into Monic speakers, who settled further to the west, and the Khmeric speakers, who migrated further south. The Munda of northeastern India were another subset of proto-Austroasiatics who likely diverged earlier than the aforementioned groups, given the linguistic distance in basic vocabulary of the languages. Most archaeologists, linguists, and other specialists, such as Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BC, bringing with them the practice of riverine agriculture and in particular, the cultivation of wet rice.[106][107][108][109] Some linguists (James Chamberlain, Joachim Schliesinger) have suggested that Vietic-speaking people migrated from the North Central Region of Vietnam to the Red River Delta, which had originally been inhabited by Tai speakers.[110][111][112][113] However, Michael Churchman found no records of population shifts in Jiaozhi (centered around the Red River Delta) in Chinese sources, indicating that a fairly stable population of Austroasiatic speakers, ancestral to modern Vietnamese, inhabited the delta during the Han-Tang periods.[114] Others[who?] have proposed that northern Vietnam and southern China were never homogeneous in terms of ethnicity and languages but were populated by people who shared similar customs. These ancient tribes did not have any kind of defined ethnic boundary and could not be described as "Vietnamese" (Kinh) in any satisfactory sense.[115] Attempts to identify ethnic groups in ancient Vietnam are problematic and often inaccurate.[116]
Another theory, based upon linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in modern-day Bolikhamsai Province and Khammouane Province in Laos as well as in parts of Nghệ An Province and Quảng Bình Province in Vietnam. In the 1930s, clusters of Vietic-speaking communities discovered in the hills of eastern Laos were believed to be the earliest inhabitants of that region.[117] Archaeogenetics demonstrated that before the Dong Son period, the Red River Delta's inhabitants were predominantly Austroasiatic: genetic data from the Phùng Nguyên culture's Mán Bạc burial site (dated 1,800 BC) have close proximity to modern Austroasiatic speakers such as the Khmer and Mlabri.[118][119] Meanwhile, "mixed genetics" from the first Vietnamese culture, the Đông Sơn culture's Núi Nấp site, show affinity with Tai-speaking Dai people from China, Tai-Kadai speakers from Thailand, and "Austroasiatic" speakers from Vietnam, including the Kinh who are genetically closely related to Han Chinese and Thais.[120][121]
According to the Vietnamese fictional legend The Tale of the Hồng Bàng Clan (Hồng Bàng thị truyện), recorded first time in Lĩnh Nam chích quái in the 14th century,[122] the first Vietnamese were descended from the dragon lord Lạc Long Quân and the fairy Âu Cơ. They married and had one hundred eggs, from which hatched one hundred children. Their eldest son ruled as the Hùng king.[123] The Hùng kings were claimed to be descended from the mythical figure Shen Nong.[124]
Early history and Chinese rule
The earliest reference of the proto-Vietnamese in Chinese annals was the Lạc (Chinese: Luo), Lạc Việt, or the Dongsonian,[125] an ancient tribal confederacy[126] in ancient Northern Vietnam, particularly in ancient Red River Delta.[127] DNA testing shows that this culture did concern Tai speakers.[97][128][129] There is an opinion that they were polyglot Austroasiatic and Tai-Kadai speakers occupied the Red River Delta.[130][131] The Lạc developed the metallurgical Đông Sơn culture in c. 1000 BC that existed until the 1st century[132]: 207 [133][134] and the Văn Lang chiefdom in c. 7th century BC[135] that was ruled by the semi-mythical Hùng kings.[136] To the south of the Dongsonians was the Sa Huỳnh culture of the Austronesian Chamic people who were ancestors of Chams establishing Champa.[137] Around 400–200 BC, the Lạc came to contact with both Âu Việt (a splinter group of Tai peoples) and Chinese/Huaxia from the north.[127] According to a late-third- or early-fourth-century AD Chinese chronicle, the leader of the Âu Việt, Thục Phán, conquered Văn Lang and deposed the last Hùng king.[138] Having submissions of Lạc lords, Thục Phán proclaimed himself King An Dương of Âu Lạc kingdom.[136] The Âu Việt and Lạc Việt were united under Âu Lạc and both were considered to be Baiyue tribes by ancient Chinese. The Đông Sơn culture continued under the rule of Âu Lạc.
In 179 BC, Zhao Tuo, an ethnic Chinese and a former Qin dynasty's general who established and had ruled Nanyue, a hybrid nation between Chinese people and southern Baiyue tribes, in modern-day Guangdong and Guangxi, annexed Âu Lạc, and began the Chinese political influence in Northern Vietnam that lasted in a millennium.[139] After destroying the Qin dynasty and other powers to unify China, in 111 BC, the Han dynasty from the North conquered Nanyue, brought the Northern Vietnam region under Chinese rule for the first time.[140] Under the rule of Nanyue and early rule of Chinese Han dynasty, the Đông Sơn culture and local society in Northern Vietnam were respected. However, after suppressing the Trung sisters' rebellion here in 43,[141] the Han Empire decided to strongly sinicize the local people and large waves of Chinese people immigrated to Vietnam from then on, which led to the fall of the Đông Sơn culture.[142][143][144][145] This also led to the culture of Vietnam today being part of the Sinosphere,[146][147] Kinh Vietnamese today being genetically related to Han Chinese,[148] and Vietnamese language becoming heavily influenced by Middle Chinese.[149]
By the 7th century to 9th century AD, as the Chinese Tang Empire ruled over the region, historians such as Henri Maspero proposed that Vietnamese-speaking people became separated from other Vietic groups such as the Mường and Chứt due to heavier Chinese influences on the Vietnamese.[150] Other argue that a Vietic migration from north central Vietnam to the Red River Delta in the seventh century replaced the original Tai-speaking inhabitants.[151] In the mid-9th century, local rebels aided by Nanzhao tore the Tang Chinese rule to nearly collapse.[152] The Tang reconquered the region in 866, causing half of the local rebels to flee into the mountains, which historians believe that was the separation between the Mường and the Vietnamese took at the end of Tang rule in Vietnam.[150][153] Vietnam gained de facto autonomy from the Tang Dynasty in peace in 905.[154] In 938, the Vietnamese leader Ngô Quyền who was a native of Thanh Hóa, led Viet forces to defeat the Chinese Southern Han armada at Bạch Đằng River[155] and proclaimed himself king in 939, became the first Viet king of a de facto independent polity that now could be perceived as "Vietnamese".[156]
Medieval and early modern period
Ngô Quyền died in 944 and his kingdom de facto collapsed into chaos and disturbances between twelve warlords and chiefs.[158] In 968, a leader named Đinh Bộ Lĩnh united them and established the Đại Cồ Việt kingdom, he claimed himself as emperor.[159] With assistance of powerful Buddhist monks, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh chose Hoa Lư (in present-day Ninh Bình province) in the southern edge of the Red River Delta as the capital instead of Tang-era Đại La (in present-day Hanoi), adopted Chinese-style imperial titles, coinage, and ceremonies and tried to preserve the Chinese administrative framework.[160] The independence of Đại Cồ Việt, according to Andrew Chittick, allowed it "to develop its own distinctive political culture and ethnic consciousness."[161] His government was later recognized by the Chinese Song dynasty, but Vietnam was treated as a vassal. Having its own de facto emperors helped cement Vietnam's independent identity from China when Vietnam was nominally a Chinese vassal. Numerous Vietnamese dynasties attempted to replicate the Chinese tributary system in Southeast Asia, whilst maintaining tributary relations with Chinese dynasties.[162] On many occasions, some Vietnamese monarchs styled themselves as the "Central Kingdom" or "Central State" and referred to various Chinese dynasties as "Bắc Triều" (北朝; "northern dynasty") in relation to Vietnam, self-styled as "Nam Triều" (南朝; "southern dynasty").[163] In 979, Emperor Đinh Tiên Hoàng was assassinated, and Queen Dương Vân Nga married with Dinh's general Lê Hoàn, appointed him as Emperor. Disturbances in Vietnam attracted attention from the neighbouring countries such as the Song dynasty and the Champa polities, but they were defeated by Lê Hoàn.[164] A Khmer inscription dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants (Yuon) in Angkor.[165] Chinese writers Song Hao, Fan Chengda and Zhou Qufei all reported that the inhabitants of Đại Việt "tattooed their foreheads, crossed feet, black teeth, bare feet and blacken clothing."[166] The early 11th-century Cham inscription of Chiên Đàn, My Son, erected by king of Champa Harivarman IV (r. 1074–1080), mentions that he had offered Khmer (Kmīra/Kmir) and Viet (Yvan) prisoners as slaves to various local gods and temples of the citadel of Tralauṅ Svon.[167]
The Vietnamese royal families from the Ngô, Đinh, Early Lê, Lý, Trần and Hồ dynasties ruled the kingdom continuously from 939 to 1407. The Lý, Trần, and Hồ dynasties were all recorded to be of Chinese origin. Emperor Lý Thái Tổ (r. 1009–1028) relocated the Vietnamese capital from Hoa Lư to Đại La, the center of the Red River Delta in 1010.[168] They practiced elitist marriage alliances between clans and nobles in the country. East Asian Mahayana Buddhism became state religion, Vietnamese music instruments, dancing and religious worshipping were influenced by both Cham, Indian and Chinese styles,[169] while Confucianism slowly gained attention and influence.[170] The earliest surviving corpus and text in the Vietnamese language dated early 12th century, and surviving chữ Nôm script inscriptions dated early 13th century, showcasing enormous influences of Chinese culture among the early Vietnamese elites.[171]
The unified Mongol Empire and later the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China unsuccessfully invaded Vietnam in the 1250s and 1280s, though they sacked Hanoi.[172] Under Cham king Po Binasuor, Champa launched six successful invasions of Vietnam during the deadly Champa–Đại Việt War (1367–1390), sacking its capital in 1371, 1377, 1378, and 1383, nearly bringing Vietnam to its collapse.[173][174] Po Binasuor was only stopped in 1390 on a naval battle in which the Kinh Vietnamese deployed firearms for the first time, and miraculously killed the king of Champa, ending the devastating war.[175][176][177] The Ming dynasty of China conquered Vietnam in 1407, brought the Vietnamese under Chinese rule for 20 years, before they were driven out by Vietnamese leader Lê Lợi.[178] The Later Lê dynasty was founded in 1428 following Vietnamese independence. The fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (r. 1460–1497), is considered one of the greatest monarchs in Vietnamese history. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old traditional aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars, adopted Confucianism, and transformed a Đại Việt from a Southeast Asian style polity to a bureaucratic state, and flourished. Thánh Tông's forces, armed with gunpowder weapons, overwhelmed the long-term rival Champa in 1471, then launched an unsuccessful invasion against the Laotian and Lan Na kingdoms in the 1480s.[179]
16th century – Modern period
With the death of Thánh Tông in 1497, the Vietnamese kingdom/empire swiftly declined. Climate extremes, failing crops, regionalism and factionism tore the Vietnamese apart.[180] From 1533 to 1802, five powerful Vietnamese families – Mạc, Lê, Trịnh, Tây Sơn and Nguyễn – each ruled on their own domains. In North Vietnam (Đàng Ngoài–outer realm), the Lê emperors barely sat on the throne while the Trịnh lords held power of the court. The Mạc fought the Lê and Trịnh and controlled Northern Vietnam but later only Cao Bang until being completely defeated by the Trịnh lords in 1677. The Nguyễn lords ruled the southern polity of Đàng Trong (inner realm) despite also declaring loyalty to the Later Lê Dynasty.[181] Thousands of ethnic Vietnamese migrated south, settled on the old Cham lands.[182] European missionaries and traders from the sixteenth century brought new religion, ideas and crops to the Vietnamese (Annamese). By 1639, there were 82,500 Catholic converts throughout Vietnam. In 1651, Alexandre de Rhodes published a 300-pages catechism in Latin and romanized-Vietnamese (chữ Quốc Ngữ) or the Vietnamese alphabet.[183] After the Manchus replaced the Ming dynasty in 1644 then conquered Southern China, waves of Chinese who were loyal to the Ming Dynasty and anti-Manchus migrated to Southern Vietnam in 1679 with encouragement of the Nguyễn lords and were later assimilated into the Kinh people.[184][185]: 272 [184]: 3 : 6 Hundreds of years of territorial expansions (mainly to the south) gradually expanded Vietnam's borders and Kinh settlements, with Cambodia even briefly being part of Vietnam. Expansions also helped Vietnam's influence in Southeast Asia as a great power. Vietnamese dynasties tended to favor Kinh people over ethnic minorities and impose Chinese culture on the entire kingdom/empire. Kinh chauvinism (at peak under Minh Mạng) ended when Vietnam fell to French. After French were expelled in 1954, both Vietnamese capitalists and communists would restart the process of Vietnamizing ethnic minorities again. In addition to the wars with the Mongols, the Song dynasty, and the Ming Dynasty; the Vietnamese also had a military victory against another Chinese invasion caused by the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty in 1789. However Vietnam remained as a Manchu de jure vassal until 1883; it was also a Song, Mongol, and Ming vassal before. The three Tây Sơn brothers led an army of peasants rebelling, formed the Tây Sơn dynasty in 1778, and partly unified the country by destroying both the Trịnh and Nguyễn, and later the Lê; but the dynasty fell into an internal conflict between Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Nhạc while the exiled remnants of the Nguyễn lords came back to conquer Southern Vietnam.
The Vietnamese Fragmentation period ended in 1802 as Emperor Gia Long, who was a Nguyen lord aided by French volunteers and supported by Southern Vietnamese (including local Chinese). His troops defeated the Tay Son kingdom and reunited Vietnam under the Nguyễn dynasty. Since 1804, the name "Vietnam" has been the official name of the country.[83][84][85] Through assimilation and brutal subjugation in the 1830s by Minh Mang, a large chunk of indigenous Cham had been assimilated into Vietnamese. Under Minh Mạng, Christianity was strongly persecuted.[186] By 1847, the Vietnamese state under Emperor Thiệu Trị, people that identified them as "người Việt Nam" accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's population.[187] Due to anti-Manchu sentiment, Vietnam (Nguyễn dynasty) considered itself the legitimate heir to the Chinese civilization.[188] This was similar when the Mongols conquered Song China.
Between 1862 and 1867, Southern Vietnam was separated from Nguyễn's Vietnam and became the French colony of Cochinchina.[189] By 1883, the entire country had come under French rule with the Treaty of Huế, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin, however both colonies were still de jure parts of the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty[190] until the Nguyễn dynasty claimed independence from France and regained Southern Vietnam with Japanese help in 1945.[191][192] The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887.[193][194] France annexed the Central Highlands and present-day Northwest Vietnam into Vietnam in 1889 and some Vietnamese people settled in the Central Highlands to spread Christianity in the region and work in rubber plantations.[195][196] The Kinh people immigrated heavily to the region under South Vietnam and communism, leading to their numbers today far exceeding those of the indigenous population.[197][198][199] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[200] Under French rule, the Latin script replaced the Chinese characters. A Western-style system of modern education introduced new humanist values into Vietnam.[201] A total of 92,311 Vietnamese men from French Indochina were in the service of France in World War I,[202][203] several battalions fought and suffered loss of lives at the Somme and Picardy, while others were deployed at Verdun, the Chemin des Dames, and in Champagne.[204] Vietnamese troops also served in the Balkans[205] and the Middle East. Vietnam also contributed 184 million piasters in the form of loans and 336,000 tons of food for France in the war. Many political organizations in Vietnam stood up to work for Vietnamese independence; including the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng as an ally copying the operating model, name, and ideology of the Kuomintang ruling the Republic of China. Under the Nguyễn dynasty and later the Vietnamese communists, Vietnam declared independence from France twice in 1945. After 1945, France and its pro-French Vietnamese government officially established autonomous regions for territories where the ethnic Kinh did not make up the majority in Vietnam (the Montagnard country of South Indochina, Autonomous Territories, the Crown Domain of the Southern Higlander Country, and the Domain of the Crown) to fight communists dominated by the Kinh. However after Vietnam gained independence from France, both North and South Vietnam strongly followed Vietnamese nationalism and Vietnamization. The autonomous regions were abolished by South Vietnam in 1955,[206] North Vietnam also abolished autonomous regions in 1975.[207][208]
Despite having a long recorded history of the Vietnamese language and people, the identification and distinction of 'ethnic Vietnamese' or ethnic Kinh, as well as other ethnic groups in Vietnam, were only begun by colonial administration in the late 19th and early 20th century. Following colonial government's efforts of ethnic classificating, nationalism, especially ethnonationalism and eugenic social Darwinism were encouraged among the new Vietnamese intelligentsia's discourse. After World War II, French rule in Vietnam was restored, however France decided to give Vietnam more autonomy,[209] and both the pro-French Vietnamese government (part of the French Union[210]) and Vietnamese communists supported the idea of an independent Vietnam. The First Indochina War (1946–1954) between Vietnamese communists and the French Union resulted in the end of French rule in Vietnam in 1954 after French military defeat. Pro-French Vietnamese government would become South Vietnam while Vietnamese communists would become North Vietnam.
The mid-20th century marked a pivotal turning point with the division of Vietnam in 1954 and Vietnam War, a conflict between communist North Vietnam and capitalist South Vietnam that not only left an indelible impact on the nation but also had far-reaching consequences for the Kinh Vietnamese people. Both regimes claimed sovereignty over the entire country and both had opposing ideologies. The North was helped by the USSR and China while the South was helped by the US. The war, which lasted from 1955 to 1975 as part of the global Cold War between the US and USSR, resulted in significant social, economic, and political upheavals, shaping the modern history of Vietnam and its people. Following the communist victory in 1975 and reunification of Vietnam under communism in 1976, the post-war era brought economic hardships and strained social dynamics with the country heavily depending on the Soviet Union and being isolated by the international community, prompting resilient efforts at reconstruction, reconciliation, and the implementation of socio-economic reforms i.e. the Đổi Mới policies in the late 20th century and early 21th century. Soviet-style social integrational and ethnic classification of communist Vietnam tried to build an image of diversity under the harmony of socialism, promoting the idea of the Vietnamese nation as a 'great single family' comprised by many different ethnic groups, and Kinh Vietnamese chauvinism officially became strictly forbidden. However, the Kinh people are still the main ethnic group who have the decisive say in the country.
Religions
According to the 2019 census, the religious demographics of Vietnam are as follows:[1]
- 86.32% Vietnamese folk religion or non religious
- 6.1% Catholicism
- 4.79% Buddhism (mainly East Asian Mahayana)
- 1.02% Hoahaoism
- 1% Protestantism
- <1% Caodaism
- 0.77 Others
It is worth noting here that the data is highly skewed, as a large majority of Vietnamese may declare themselves atheist, yet practice forms of traditional native folk religion or East Asian Mahayana Buddhism.[211]
Estimates for the year 2010 published by the Pew–Templeton Global Religious Futures Project:[212][unreliable source?]
- Vietnamese folk religion, 45.3%
- Unaffiliated, 29.6%
- Buddhism, 16.4%
- Christianity, 8.2%
- Other, 0.5%
Genetics
Ha et. al (2019) revealed that Kinh Vietnamese cluster closely with Han Chinese and Thais, but there is less genetic distance between the Kinh and Thais. Whilst the study focused on northern Kinh, they were not significantly dissimilar from other Kinh in Vietnam.[213] According to a study conducted at the Saint-Louis Hospital in Paris, France: "Research comparisons show that the Kinh have close genetic ties with other oriental ethnic groups", but the Kinh have seven unique genetic characteristics. These research results, as well as the enzyme forms of the Tai peoples left by the ethnic Kinh, indicate that the ethnic Kinh are derived from the Tai peoples, Malays and Chinese. According to another study conducted by Mackay Hospital, the Kinh ethnic group is classified into the same genome as the Miao, South Chinese, Bouyei, and Dai peoples. This genome is also partially similar to the Chinese genes of Singaporean Chinese, Thai Chinese, Fujianese, and Hakka. Kinh Saigonese are close to Xishuangbanna's Dai ethnic minority and Guangdong Han Chinese.[214] The Kinh have high genetic similarities with Laotians, who assimilated the majority of Austronesian maternal lineages. Most Tai groups tend to have high frequencies of Y-DNA haplogroup O-M95, including its O-M88 subclade, which also has been found with high frequency among the Kinh Vietnamese, the neighboring Austroasiatic, and Austronesian peoples in mainland Southeast Asia. Huang et al. (2022) found that Kinh Vietnamese and the Mường genetically cluster with Kra-Dai speakers.[215] The haplogroup observed most frequently and regularly among the Tai-Kadai peoples is haplogroup O1b1-K18, which is also the predominant Y-DNA haplogroup in the Kinh, Austroasiatic, and Austronesian peoples of mainland Southeast Asia. The Tai-Kadai peoples in Northern Thailand are closely related to Kinh Vietnamese.[216]
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Kra-Dai (Tai-Kadai) migration route according to James R. Chamberlain (2016).[218]
-
Tai-Kadai migration route according to Matthias Gerner's Northeast to Southwest Hypothesis.[219]
Haplogroup O-M122 appears at high frequency in Vietnamese male with 44%. A small proportion of Kinh Vietnamese share haplotypes with the Iranian Neolithic Wezmeh Cave.[220] Like other mainland Southeast Asians, Vietnamese people have South Asian admixture which arose from Indian cultural influence in the region since the first millennium CE. Admixture rates for Southeast Asians range from 2% to 16%. Low frequencies of West Eurasian Y-haplogroups R1a-M420 and R2-M479 are found in Ede (8.3% and 4.2%) and Giarai (3.7% and 3.7%) peoples. The Chams additionally have haplogroups R-M17 (13.6%) and R-M124 (3.4%).[221] Pischedda et. al (2017) stated that the majority of Vietnamese carried mtDNA haplotypes that clustered in clades M7 (20%) and R9’F (27%), which is common in Southeast Asian populations. The Vietnamese can be described as having heavy southern Chinese admixture, originating from Nam tiến expansions, which is superimposed to a minor Thai-Indonesian composite.[222]
Frequencies of the main mtDNA haplogroups and sub-haplogroups in some Vietnamese peoples | ||
---|---|---|
Haplogroups: A B C D M (xD,C) N(xB,R9'F,A) R9'F | ||
Vietnam (n = 622) | ||
Kinh (n = 399) | ||
Hmong (n = 115) | ||
Tay (n = 62) | ||
Chinese (n = 23) | ||
Nung (n = 21) | ||
Source: Figure 1 A, Page 6, Sara Pischedda et al. (2017)[223] |
Diaspora
Originally from Northern Vietnam, the Kinh ethnicity gradually expanded south and conquered a lot of territory to expand Vietnam, Kinh settlements, and Kinh Vietnamese/Chinese culture. The Kinh account for 85.32% of Vietnamese population in the 2019 census.[224] The proportion of Kinh people in Vietnam tended to decrease slightly from 1989 to 2019.[225][226][227][228] The Kinh form the largest ethnic minority group in Cambodia, but still small, only at 5% of the population.[229] Vietnamese people faced repression from the First Kingdom of Cambodia and Khmer Republic governments, but repression peaked when the communist Khmer Rouge of Pol Pot took power. Under the Khmer Rouge, they were heavily persecuted.[230] Most of them were killed or expelled to Vietnam.[231][232] Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the Khmer Rouge era reduced the Vietnamese population in Cambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984.[233]
The Kinh migrants came to modern-day Guangxi's Dongxing (China) in the 16th century and their descendants formed the Chinese Gin or Jing ethnicity when France cut off part of Northern Vietnam's territory (Tonkin) to China in 1887, they have been a recognized community of China since 1958. Gin people and Kinh Vietnamese people speak a same language. Although the Chinese government claims that the language of Gin people is linguistically unclassifiable,[234] it is today often considered one of the Vietic languages. Unlike Kinh people, the Gin still use Chinese characters entirely.[235][236] In general, their culture, dialect, and writting are special as well as their Vietnamese national identity does not exist compared to their Kinh compatriots. Kinh people have also been recognized by Czechia and Slovakia since 2013 and 2023 respectively.[237][238][239]
Under the colonial regime of France, Vietnam was regarded as the most important colony in Asia by foreign rulers, and the Kinh Vietnamese had a higher social standing than other ethnicities in French Indochina.[240] As a result, educated Vietnamese were often trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies. There was also a significant representation of Vietnamese students in France during this period, primarily consisting of members of the elite class. A large number of Vietnamese also migrated to France as workers. The wave of migrants to France during World War I formed the first major presence of the Vietnamese in France and the Western world.[241]
When Vietnam gained its independence from France in 1954, a number of Vietnamese loyal to the colonial government also migrated to France. During the partition of Vietnam into North and South (1954-1976), a number of South Vietnamese students also arrived to study in France, along with individuals involved in commerce for trade with France, which was a principal economic partner with South Vietnam.[241]
The end of the Vietnam War and later Vietnamese reunification under communism much expanded the Vietnamese diaspora, which saw millions of Vietnamese fleeing the country from the new communist regime, most of them were Southern and South Central Vietnamese. Recognizing an international humanitarian crisis, many countries accepted Vietnamese refugees, primarily the US, France, Australia and Canada.[242] Meanwhile, under the new communist regime, tens of thousands of Vietnamese were sent to work or study in Eastern European part of the USSR and other communist countries in Central Europe (such as former East Germany[243]) as development aid to the Vietnamese government and for migrants to acquire skills that were to be brought home to help with development.[244] However, after the fall of communism in these countries, a vast majority of these overseas Vietnamese decided to remain in their host nations.[citation needed] Most of them were Northern and North Central Vietnamese. A large portion of the Vietnamese diaspora who fled from capitalist South Vietnam after its fall and now living in Western Europe, North America, and Oceania have been religious (Christian, Buddhist, Caodaist) and anti-communist, while the Vietnamese living in Eastern Europe and Asia are more aligned to irreligion, and, to a lesser extent, folk religions and Buddhism.[245][246][247] Anti-communist Overseas Vietnamese communities have considered the Yellow Flag with Three Red Stripes to be their representative flag, Canada and many localities in the US and Australia have officially recognized the flag.[248][249][250][251][252][253][254][255]
Culture
Historically Vietnamese literature was initially written in Chinese characters and chữ Nôm (Vietnamese variant of Chinese characters[256]). Since the 1920s, literature has been mainly composed in the a type of the Latin script (de facto script of Vietnam today) with profound renovations in form and category such as novels, new-style poems, short stories and dramas, and with diversity in artistic tendency. Written literature attained speedy development after the August Revolution, when it was directed by the Vietnamese Communist guideline and focused on the people's fighting and work life.[citation needed] Classical literature include Truyện Kiều (The Tale of Kieu) (Nguyễn Du), Cung Oán Ngâm Khúc (Complaint of a Palace Maid) (Nguyễn Gia Thiều), Chinh phụ ngâm (Lament of the soldier's wife) (Đặng Trần Côn), and Quốc âm Thi Tập (Poetry Collection) (Nguyễn Trãi), all of which are transliterated or annotated in chữ Quốc ngữ. Some famous female poets include Hồ Xuân Hương, Đoàn Thị Điểm, and Bà Huyện Thanh Quan.[citation needed] Modern Vietnamese literature has developed from romanticism to realism, from heroism in wartime to all aspects of life, and developed into ordinary life of the Vietnamese.[citation needed] Modern Vietnamese fables have recently been introduced in English as well. [257] Historically, Vietnamese poetry consists of three language traditions. Each poetry was written exclusively in Classical Chinese and later incorporated Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary. It was also often centered around the themes and traditions of Buddhism and Confucianism.[258][259] This style of poetry remained prominent until the 13th century. Thereafter, poetry and literature in the Vietnamese language emerged as the primary rival to literature written in Classical Chinese in Vietnam. Traditional Vietnamese art is a part of art practiced in Vietnam or by Vietnamese artists, from ancient times (including the elaborate Đông Sơn drums) to post-Chinese domination art which was strongly influenced by Chinese Buddhist art, as well as Taoism and Confucianism. In the past, when literacy in the old character-based writing systems of were restricted to Vietnamese scholars, calligraphy nevertheless still played an important part in Vietnamese life. On special occasions such as Lunar New Year, people would go to scholars to make them a calligraphy hanging (often poetry, folk sayings or even single words).
Vietnam has some 50 national music instruments, in which the set of percussion instruments is the most popular, diverse and long-lasting such as đàn đáy, đàn tranh, đàn nhị, đàn bầu...The set of blowing instruments is represented by flutes and pan-pipes, while the set of string instruments is specified by đàn bầu and đàn đáy. Vietnamese folksongs are rich in forms and melodies of regions across the country, ranging from ngâm thơ (reciting poems), hát ru (lullaby), hò (chanty) to hát quan họ, trong quan, xoan, dum, ví giặm, ca Huế, bài chòi, ly. Apart from this, there are also other forms like hát xẩm, chầu văn, and ca trù. Vietnamese theatre includes Hát tuồng, Cải lương, and Hát chèo. Water puppetry (Múa rối nước), is a distinct Vietnamese art form which had its origins in the 10th century and very popular in northern region. Among the ethnic Vietnamese majority, there are several traditional dances performed widely at festivals and other special occasions, such as the lion dance. In the imperial court, there also developed throughout the centuries a series of complex court dances which require great skill. Some of the more widely known are the imperial lantern dance, fan dance, and platter dance, among others.
Vietnamese silk painting is one of the most popular forms of art in Vietnam, favored for the mystical atmosphere that can be achieved with the medium. During the 19th and 20th centuries, French influence was absorbed into Vietnamese art and the liberal and modern use of color especially began to differentiate Vietnamese silk paintings from their Chinese, Japanese and Korean counterparts.[260] Vietnamese silk paintings typically showcase the countryside, landscapes, pagodas, historical events or scenes of daily life. A folk art with a long history in Vietnam, Vietnamese woodblock prints have reached a level of popularity outside of Vietnam.[261] Organic materials are used to make the paint, which is applied to wood and pressed on paper. The process is repeated with different colors.
In traditional Vietnamese culture, kinship plays an important role in Vietnam. Whilst Western culture is known for its emphasis on individualism, Vietnamese culture places value on the roles of family. For specific information, see Vietnamese pronouns. In current rural Vietnam, one can still see three or four generations living under one roof.
Vietnamese martial arts are deeply spiritual due to the influence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, and are strongly reliant on the "Việt Võ Đạo" (philosophy of Vietnamese martial arts).
Vietnamese cuisine is extremely diverse, often divided into three main categories, each pertaining to Vietnam's three main regions (north, central and south). It uses very little oil and many vegetables, and is mainly based on rice and fish sauce. Its characteristic flavors are sweet (sugar), spicy (Bird's eye chili), sour (lime), nước mắm (fish sauce), and flavored by a variety of mint and basil. Chopsticks (Vietnamese: đũa, chữ Nôm: 𥮊 or 𥯖) are a common utensil in Vietnam.[262]
Among the traditional Vietnamese holidays, the two most important and widely celebrated are the Tết Nguyên Đán, followed by the Tết Trung Thu. Besides folk religion, religion in Vietnam has historically been a mix of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, known in Vietnamese as the Tam Giáo ("the three religions").[263] Some elements considered to be unique of Vietnamese culture include ancestor veneration and respect for community and family.[264] When a death occurs in a Vietnamese household, the family members of the deceased would hold a wake ceremony or vigil that typically lasts for approximately five to six days. The surviving family wear coarse gauze turbans and tunics for the funeral.
The most popular and widely recognized Vietnamese national costume is the áo dài.[265]
The cinema of Vietnam originates in 1923 and was later much influenced by the First Indochina War and Vietnam War. Some proclaimed Vietnamese language-films include Cyclo, The Scent of Green Papaya and Vertical Ray of the Sun, all by Tran Anh Hung, challenged the war-torn depiction of Vietnam at the time.[266] In more recent years, as Vietnam's film industry has modernized and moved beyond government-backed propaganda films, contemporary Vietnamese filmmakers have gained a wider audience with films such as Buffalo Boy, Bar Girls and The White Silk Dress. More recent notable works include the Vietnamese-language drama film, Inside the Yellow Cocoon Shell, by Phạm Thiên Ân, which won the Caméra d'Or in 2023 for best first feature film at the 76th Cannes Film Festival (2023). In the same event, the French film, The Taste of Things by Trần Anh Hùng won Best Director at the 2023 Cannes Film Festival.[267]
Vietnam was ranked 44th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, it has increased its ranking considerably since 2012, where it was ranked 76th.[268][269][270][271][272] The number of Vietnamese publications in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science has increased at a rate well above the average for Southeast Asia.[273] Vietnam's rank based on number of gold medals in some world exams for natural subjects (2014-2023):
The influence of French language and culture is still significant in Vietnam today due to the country's long period of French domination (1883-1954). French was a recognized language of South Vietnam from 1954 to 1975,[274] and Vietnam has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie since 1970.
See also
- Baiyue
- Lạc Việt
- Âu Lạc
- Vietnamese language
- List of Vietnamese people
- Overseas Vietnamese (known as "Việt Kiều")
- Vietnamese cuisine
- Vietnamese music
- Vietnamese name
- List of ethnic groups in Vietnam
- History of Vietnam
- Southeast Asia
- Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia
- Vietnamese clothing
- Culture of Vietnam
- Vietnamese nationalism
- Vietnam
Notes
- ^ The number of Vietnamese nationals currently in Taiwan with a valid residence permit was 259,375 as of 30 April 2024 (155,147 males, 104,228 females). The number of Vietnamese nationals with a valid residence permit in Taiwan (including those currently not in Taiwan) was 295,051 as of 30 April 2024 (174,108 males, 120,943 females).[10] The number of foreign spouses of Vietnamese origin in Taiwan was 111,529 as of April 2022 (2,383 males, 109,146 females).[11] According to the Taiwanese Ministry of the Interior, between 1993 and 2021, 94,015 Vietnamese nationals became naturalized citizens in the Republic of China.[12] It was also estimated that 70% of Vietnamese brides in Taiwan had obtained Taiwanese nationality as of 2014,[13] with many renouncing Vietnamese citizenship in the process of naturalization, in accordance with Taiwanese law.[14]
An estimated 200,000 children were born to Vietnamese mothers and Taiwanese fathers, according to a report by Voice of Vietnam in 2014.[15] According to Taiwanese Ministry of Education, in 2021, 105,237 children born to foreign spouses of Vietnamese origin were enrolled in educational institutions across Taiwan (4,601 in kindergartens, 23,719 in primary schools, 17,904 in secondary schools, 31,497 in high schools, and 27,516 in universities/colleges),[16] a decrease of nearly 3,000 students compared to the previous year, which recorded a total of 108,037 students (5,168 in kindergartens, 25,752 in primary schools, 22,462 in secondary schools, 33,430 in high schools, and 21,225 in universities/colleges).[17] - ^ According to a report released by the Ministry of the Interior and Safety, as of 2022, there were 209,373 Vietnamese nationals in South Korea (those without Korean nationality), including 41,555 foreign workers; 36,362 marriage immigrants; 68,181 international students and 63,274 people classified as "Others". Additionally, the report revealed that 50,660 Vietnamese individuals had acquired Korean nationality, and there were also 103,295 children born to parents of Vietnamese origin in South Korea.[21]
- ^ This data only included Vietnamese Nationals in mainland China, excluding Gin people here.
- ^ This data only included Gin people in mainland China.
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在我国古籍上很早就有关于黎族先民的记载。西汉以前曾经以 "骆越",东汉以"里"、"蛮",隋唐以"俚"、"僚"等名称,来泛称我国南方的一些少数民族,其中也包括海南岛黎族的远古祖先。"黎"这一族称最早正式出现在唐代后期的文献上...... 南朝梁大同中(540—541年),由于儋耳地方俚僚(包括黎族先民)1000多峒 "归附"冼夫人,由"请命于朝",而重置崖州。
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Further reading
- Dutton, George; Werner, Jayne; Whitmore, John K., eds. (2012). Sources of Vietnamese Tradition. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51110-0.
- Lockhart, Bruce M.; Duiker, William J. (14 April 2010). The A to Z of Vietnam. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-1-4617-3192-4.
- Ray, Nick; et al. (2010), Vietnam, Lonely Planet, ISBN 978-17-42203898
- McLeod, Mark; Nguyen, Thi Dieu (2001). Culture and Customs of Vietnam. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-361135.
- Taylor, Keith Weller (1983). The Birth of the Vietnam. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07417-0.
- Taylor, Keith Weller (2013). A History of the Vietnamese. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87586-8.
- Amer, Ramses (1996). Vietnam's Policies and Ethnic Chinese since 1975, Sojourn, Vol. 11, Issue 1: 76–104.
- Andaya, Barbara Watson (2006). The flaming womb: repositioning women in early modern Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. p. 146. ISBN 0-8248-2955-7. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- Bob Baulch; Truong Thi Kim Chuyen; Dominique Haughton; Jonathan Haughton (May 2002). Ethnic Minority Development in Vietnam –A Socioeconomic Perspective (PDF) (Report). Vol. WPS 2836. The World Bank–Development Research Group. Retrieved 13 December 2012.
- Chen, King C. (1987). China's War With Vietnam, 1979: Issues, Decisions, and Implications. Hoover Press. ISBN 0817985727. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
- Cœdès, George. (1966). The Making of South East Asia (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 0520050614. Retrieved 7 August 2013.
- Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana; Anderson, James, eds. (2011). The Tongking Gulf Through History (illustrated ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812243369. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
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External links
- Media related to Vietnamese people at Wikimedia Commons