Examine individual changes

'{{Christian culture}} [[File:Tiffany Education (center).JPG|thumb|Science and Religion are portrayed to be in harmony in the [[Louis Comfort Tiffany|Tiffany]] window ''[[Education (Chittenden Memorial Window)|Education]]'' (1890).]] Most sources of knowledge available to early Christians were connected to [[pagan]] world-views. There were various opinions on how Christianity should regard pagan learning, which included its ideas about nature. For instance, among early Christian teachers, [[Tertullian]] (c. 160–220) held a generally negative opinion of [[Greek philosophy]], while [[Origen]] (c. 185–254) regarded it much more favorably and required his students to read nearly every work available to them.<ref name="Davis2003">{{cite book | last = Davis | first = Edward B. | contribution = Christianity, History Of Science And Religion | year = 2003 | title = Encyclopedia of Science and Religion | editor-last = Van Huyssteen | editor-first = Wentzel | volume = | pages = 123–7 | place = | publisher = Macmillan Reference USA | isbn=978-0-02-865704-2 | postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of sciences. It has been prolific in the foundation of schools, universities and hospitals, and many clergy have been active in the sciences. [[History of Science|Historians of science]] such as [[Pierre Duhem]] credit medieval Catholic mathematicians and philosophers such as [[John Buridan]], [[Nicole Oresme]] and [[Roger Bacon]] as the founders of modern science.<ref>Wallace, William A. (1984). ''Prelude, Galileo and his Sources. The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science''. N.J.: Princeton University Press.</ref> Duhem concluded that "the mechanics and physics of which modern times are justifiably proud to proceed, by an uninterrupted series of scarcely perceptible improvements, from doctrines professed in the heart of the medieval schools".<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Lindberg |editor-first1=David C. |editor-link1=David C. Lindberg |editor-last2=Westman |editor-first2=Robert S. |title=Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |publication-date=27 Jul 1990 |edition=1st |chapter=Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Bacon to Butterfield |page=14 |isbn=0-521-34804-8 |orig-year=Duhem, Pierre (1905). "Preface". ''Les Origines de la statique'' '''1'''. Paris: A. Hermman. p. iv.}}</ref> == Overview == [[File:God the Geometer.jpg|thumb|Science, and particularly [[geometry]] and [[astronomy]], was linked directly to the divine for most medieval [[scholar]]s. The [[compass]] in this 13th-century manuscript is a symbol of creation.]] Earlier attempts at reconciliation of Christianity with [[Newtonian mechanics]] appear quite different from later attempts at reconciliation with the newer scientific ideas of [[evolution]] or [[Theory of relativity|relativity]].<ref name=habgood>''Religion and Science'', [[John Habgood]], Mills & Brown, 1964, pp., 11, 14-16, 48-55, 68-69, 90-91, 87</ref><!-- Habgood: pages 48-55 --> Many early interpretations of evolution polarized themselves around a ''[[survival of the fittest|struggle for existence]].'' These ideas were significantly countered by later findings of universal [[sociobiology|patterns of biological cooperation]]. According to [[John Habgood]], all man really knows here is that the [[universe]] seems to be a mix of [[good and evil]], [[beauty]] and [[pain]], and that [[suffering]] may somehow be part of the process of creation. Habgood holds that Christians should not be surprised that suffering may be used creatively by [[God]], given their faith in the symbol of the [[Christian cross|Cross]].<ref name=habgood /> <!-- Habgood: page 68–69 --> [[Robert John Russell]] has examined consonance and dissonance between modern physics, evolutionary biology, and Christian theology.<ref>{{cite book|last=Russell|first=Robert John|title=Cosmology: From Alpha to Omega|year=2008|publisher=Fortress Press|location=Minneapolis, MN|isbn=978-0-8006-6273-8|page=344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Knight|first=Christopher C.|year=2008|title=God's Action in Nature's World: Essays in Honour of Robert John Russell|journal=Science & Christian Belief|volume=20|issue=2|pages=214–215|url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=34154239&site=ehost-live|subscription=yes}}</ref> [[File:Studying astronomy and geometry.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Clerks studying astronomy and geometry.<br />France, early 15th century.]] [[Christian philosophy|Christian philosophers]] [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354–430) and Thomas Aquinas<ref name=Grant>{{cite book|last=Grant|first=Edward|title=Science and Religion, 400 B.C. to A.D. 1550: from Aristotle to Copernicus|year=2006|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=0-8018-8401-2|page=222|edition=Johns Hopkins Paperbacks}}</ref> held that scriptures can have multiple interpretations on certain areas where the matters were far beyond their reach, therefore one should leave room for future findings to shed light on the meanings. The "Handmaiden" tradition, which saw secular studies of the universe as a very important and helpful part of arriving at a better understanding of scripture, was adopted throughout Christian history from early on.<ref>Grant 2006, pp. 111–114</ref> Also the sense that God created the world as a self operating system is what motivated many Christians throughout the Middle Ages to investigate nature.<ref>Grant 2006, pp. 105–106</ref> Modern historians of science such as [[J.L. Heilbron]],<ref>{{cite web |title=What Time Is It in the Transept? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/10/24/reviews/991024.24burnett.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=October 24, 1999 |accessdate=2013-08-01 |department= [[D. Graham Burnett]] book review of J.L.Heilbron's work, ''The Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Observatories''}}</ref> [[Alistair Cameron Crombie]], [[David C Lindberg|David Lindberg]],<ref>{{cite book|title=When Science and Christianity Meet |last=Lindberg |first=David |date=October 2003 |author2=Numbers, Ronald L |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-48214-6}}</ref> [[Edward Grant]], [[Thomas Goldstein (historian)|Thomas Goldstein]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Dawn of Modern Science: From the Ancient Greeks to the Renaissance |last=Goldstein |first=Thomas |publisher=Da Capo Press |date=April 1995 |isbn=0-306-80637-1}}</ref> and Ted Davis have reviewed the popular notion that medieval Christianity was a negative influence in the development of civilization and science. In their views, not only did the monks save and cultivate the remnants of ancient civilization during the barbarian invasions, but the medieval church promoted learning and science through its sponsorship of many [[universities]] which, under its leadership, grew rapidly in Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries, St. Thomas Aquinas, the Church's "model theologian", not only argued that reason is in harmony with faith, he even recognized that reason can contribute to understanding revelation, and so encouraged intellectual development. He was not unlike other medieval theologians who sought out reason in the effort to defend his faith.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fides et Ratio (Faith and Reason), IV |url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/ENCYC/JP2FIDES.HTM#Ch4b |author=Pope John Paul II |date=September 1998 |accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref> Some of today's scholars, such as [[Stanley Jaki]], have claimed that Christianity with its particular [[worldview]], was a crucial factor for the emergence of modern science.<ref>Jaki, Stanley L. ''The Savior of Science''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company (July 2000), {{ISBN|0-8028-4772-2}}.</ref> David C. Lindberg states that the widespread popular belief that the Middle Ages was a time of ignorance and superstition due to the Christian church is a "caricature". According to Lindberg, while there are some portions of the classical tradition which suggest this view, these were exceptional cases. It was common to tolerate and encourage critical thinking about the nature of the world. The relation between Christianity and science is complex and cannot be simplified to either harmony or conflict, according to Lindberg.<ref>David C. Lindberg, "The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor", in David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, ed. ''When Science & Christianity Meet'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Pr., 2003).</ref> Lindberg reports that "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led. There was no warfare between science and the church."<ref>quoted in: Peters, Ted. "Science and Religion". ''Encyclopedia of Religion'' p. 8182</ref> [[Ted Peters (theologian)|Ted Peters]] in ''Encyclopedia of Religion'' writes that although there is some truth in the "Galileo's condemnation" story but through exaggerations, it has now become "a modern myth perpetuated by those wishing to see warfare between science and religion who were allegedly persecuted by an atavistic and dogma-bound ecclesiastical authority".<ref>Quoted in Ted Peters, "Science and Religion", ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', p. 8182</ref> In 1992, the [[Catholic Church]]'s seeming vindication of Galileo attracted much comment in the [[Galileo affair|media]]. A degree of concord between science and religion can be seen in religious belief and empirical science. The belief that God created the world and therefore humans, can lead to the view that he arranged for humans to know the world. This is underwritten by the doctrine of [[imago dei]]. In the words of [[Thomas Aquinas]], "Since human beings are said to be in the image of God in virtue of their having a nature that includes an intellect, such a nature is most in the image of God in virtue of being most able to imitate God".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-science/#Con |title=Religion and Science (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) |publisher=Plato.stanford.edu |accessdate=2013-06-16}}</ref> During the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], a period "characterized by dramatic revolutions in science" and the rise of Protestant challenges to the authority of the Catholic Church via individual liberty, the authority of Christian scriptures became strongly challenged. As science advanced, acceptance of a literal version of the Bible became "increasingly untenable" and some in that period presented ways of interpreting scripture according to its spirit on its authority and truth.<ref>{{cite web |title=Enlightenment |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/ |publisher=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> == Individual scientists' beliefs == {{See also|List of Christians in science and technology|List of Catholic scientists|List of Christian Nobel laureates}} [[File:Christian Scientists and Inventors Mosaic.jpg|right|thumb|Set of pictures for a number of notable [[Christian]] [[scientists]] and [[Inventors]].]] Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]],<ref>''Pro forma'' candidate to Prince-Bishop of Warmia, cf. Dobrzycki, Jerzy, and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", ''[[Polski słownik biograficzny]]'' (Polish Biographical Dictionary), vol. XIV, Wrocław, [[Polish Academy of Sciences]], 1969, p. 11.</ref> [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharratt |first=Michael |year=1994 |title=Galileo: Decisive Innovator |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-56671-1|pages=17, 213}}</ref> [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]],<ref>"Because he would not accept the Formula of Concord without some reservations, he was excommunicated from the Lutheran communion. Because he remained faithful to his Lutheranism throughout his life, he experienced constant suspicion from Catholics." John L. Treloar, "Biography of Kepler shows man of rare integrity. Astronomer saw science and spirituality as one." ''National Catholic Reporter'', October 8, 2004, p. 2a. A review of James A. Connor ''Kepler's Witch: An Astronomer's Discovery of Cosmic Order amid Religious War, Political Intrigue and Heresy Trial of His Mother'', Harper San Francisco.</ref> [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]<ref name="Newton – 1">[[Richard S. Westfall]] – [[Indiana University]] {{cite book | url =http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/newton.html | title = The Galileo Project | publisher = ([[Rice University]]) | accessdate = 2008-07-05<!-- , 2012-02-07-->}}</ref> and [[Robert Boyle|Boyle]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.stmarylebow.co.uk/?Boyle_Lecture | title = The Boyle Lecture | work = St. Marylebow Church}}</ref> [[Isaac Newton]], for example, believed that [[gravitation|gravity]] caused the [[planet]]s to revolve about the [[Sun]], and credited [[God]] with the [[Isaac Newton's religious views|design]]. In the concluding General Scholium to the [[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]], he wrote: "This most beautiful System of the Sun, Planets and Comets, could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful being." Other famous founders of science who adhered to Christian beliefs include Galileo, Johannes Kepler, and Blaise Pascal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rae.org/influsci.html|title=Christian Influences In The Sciences<!-- Bot generated title -->|work=rae.org|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924084347/http://www.rae.org/influsci.html|archivedate=2015-09-24|df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://creationsafaris.com/wgcs_1.htm|title=World's Greatest Creation Scientists from Y1K to Y2K|work=creationsafaris.com}}</ref> According to ''100 Years of Nobel Prizes'' a review of Nobel prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of [[List of Christian Nobel laureates|Nobel Prizes Laureates, have identified Christianity]] in its various forms as their religious preference.<ref name="100 Years">{{citation|author=Baruch A. Shalev|title=100 Years of Nobel Prizes |year=2003 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |p=57}}</ref> Overall, Christians have won a total of 72.5% in [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]] between 1901 and 2000,<ref name="Shalev, Baruch">Shalev, Baruch (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=3jrbmL-DgZQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=100+Years+of+Nobel+Prizes&hl=iw&sa=X&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAGoVChMIt8rKpZH6xgIVRVgUCh0Y1Qi9#v=onepage&q=100%20Years%20of%20Nobel%20Prizes&f=false 100 Years of Nobel Prizes]. p. 59</ref> 65.3% in [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Physics]],<ref name="Shalev, Baruch" /> 62% in [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Medicine]],<ref name="Shalev, Baruch" /> 54% in [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Economics]].<ref name="Shalev, Baruch" /> == Perspectives on evolution == In recent history, the theory of [[evolution]] has been at the center of controversy between Christianity and science, largely in America. Christians who accept a literal interpretation of the [[biblical creation|biblical account of creation]] find incompatibility between [[Darwinian evolution]] and their interpretation of the Christian faith.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-science/#Sci|title=Religion and Science|work=stanford.edu}}</ref> [[Creation science]] or [[scientific creationism]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Numbers|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ3TI5njXfIC&pg=PA268 268–285]}}</ref> is a branch of [[creationism]] that attempts to provide scientific support for the [[Genesis creation narrative]] in the [[Book of Genesis]] and attempts to disprove generally accepted [[scientific fact]]s, [[Scientific theory|theories]] and [[Paradigm|scientific paradigms]] about the [[geological history of Earth]], [[physical cosmology|cosmology]], [[abiogenesis|the chemical origins of life]] and biological [[evolution]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Plavcan |first= J. Michael |editor-first= Andrew J. |editor-last=Petto |editor2-first=Laurie R. |editor2-last=Godfrey |title= Scientists Confront Creationism |publisher= Norton |location=New York, London |isbn= 978-0-393-33073-1 |page= 361 |chapter=The Invisible Bible: The Logic of Creation Science |quote=Most creationists are simply people who choose to believe that God created the world-either as described in Scripture or through evolution. Creation scientists, by contrast, strive to use legitimate scientific means both to argue against evolutionary [[Scientific theory|theory]] and to prove the creation account as described in Scripture. |year= 2007|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Numbers|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ3TI5njXfIC&pg=PA271 271–274]}}</ref> It began in the 1960s as a [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist Christian]] effort in the United States to prove [[Biblical inerrancy]] and falsify the scientific [[evidence for evolution]].<ref name="larson">{{cite book | last = Larson | first = Edward J. | author-link = Edward Larson | year = 2004 | title = Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory | publisher = Modern Library | isbn = 978-0-679-64288-6|ref=harv}}</ref> It has since developed a sizable religious following in the United States, with creation science ministries branching worldwide.<ref>{{harvnb|Numbers|2006|pp=399–431}}</ref> In 1925, The State of Tennessee passed the [[Butler Act]], which prohibited the teaching of the theory of evolution in all schools in the state. Later that year, a similar law was passed in Mississippi, and likewise, Arkansas in 1927. In 1968, these "anti-monkey" laws were struck down by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] as unconstitutional, "because they established a religious doctrine violating both the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First]] and [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendments]] to the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]].<ref>The Origin of Rights, Roger E. Salhany, Toronto, Calgary, Vancouver:Carswell p. 32-34</ref> Most scientists have rejected creation science for several reasons, including that its claims do not refer to natural causes and cannot be tested. In 1987, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] ruled that creationism is [[religion]], not science, and cannot be advocated in [[Public school (government funded)|public school]] classrooms.<ref>"<cite>The legislative history demonstrates that the term "creation science," as contemplated by the state legislature, embraces this religious teaching.</cite>" [http://straylight.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0482_0578_ZS.html Edwards v. Aguillard]</ref> [[Theistic evolution]] is a discipline that accepts the current scientific understanding of the age of the Earth and the theory of evolution. It includes a range of beliefs, including views described as [[old earth creationism|evolutionary creationism]], which accepts most findings of modern science but also upholds classical religious understandings of God and creation in Christian context.<ref>{{cite book|last=Collins|first=Francis S.|title=The Language of God : A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief|year=2007|publisher=Free Press|location=New York|isbn=1-4165-4274-4}}</ref> == Reconciliation in Britain in the early 20th century == In ''Reconciling Science and Religion: The Debate in Early-twentieth-century Britain'', historian of biology [[Peter J. Bowler]] argues that in contrast to the conflicts between science and religion in the U.S. in the 1920s (most famously the [[Scopes Trial]]), during this period Great Britain experienced a concerted effort at reconciliation, championed by intellectually conservative scientists, supported by liberal theologians but opposed by younger scientists and secularists and [[British Conservative Evangelicalism|conservative Christians]]. These attempts at reconciliation fell apart in the 1930s due to increased social tensions, moves towards [[neo-orthodox]] theology and the acceptance of the [[modern synthesis (20th century)|modern evolutionary synthesis]].<ref>''Reconciling Science and Religion: The Debate in Early-twentieth-century Britain'', [[Peter J. Bowler]], 2001, [[University of Chicago Press]], {{ISBN|0-226-06858-7}}. Front dustcover flap material</ref> In the 20th century, several [[ecumenical]] organizations promoting a harmony between science and Christianity were founded, most notably the [[American Scientific Affiliation]], [[Biologos Foundation|The Biologos Foundation]], [[Christians in Science]], [[Society of Ordained Scientists|The Society of Ordained Scientists]], and [[Veritas Forum|The Veritas Forum]].<ref>{{cite book|author=James C. Peterson|title=Genetic Turning Points: The Ethics of Human Genetic Intervention|year=2001|publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing]]|quote=As to specifically Christian theists, an example of continue presence would be the [[American Scientific Affiliation]]. It currently has about two thousand members, all of whom affirm the Apostles' Creed as part of joining the association, and most of whom hold Ph.D.s in the natural sciences. Their active journal is ''[[Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith]]''. Across the Atlantic, the Society of Ordained Scientists and Christians in Science are similar affiliation in Great Britain.}}</ref> == Roman Catholicism == {{See also|Catholic Church and evolution|Catholic Church and science}} [[File:Gregor Mendel Monk.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gregor Mendel]], Augustinian Friar and scientist, who developed theories on [[genetics]] for the first time.]] While refined and clarified over the centuries, the [[Roman Catholic]] position on the relationship between science and religion is one of harmony, and has maintained the teaching of [[natural law]] as set forth by [[Thomas Aquinas]]. For example, regarding scientific study such as that of evolution, the church's unofficial position is an example of [[theistic evolution]], stating that faith and scientific findings regarding human evolution are not in conflict, though humans are regarded as a special creation, and that the existence of God is required to explain both [[monogenism]] and the [[Spirituality|spiritual]] component of human origins. Catholic schools have included all manners of scientific study in their curriculum for many centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13554b.htm |title=Catholic Encyclopedia |publisher=New Advent |accessdate=2013-06-16}}</ref> Galileo once stated "The intention of the [[Holy Spirit]] is to teach us how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go."<ref>{{cite book |title= The Cambridge Companion to Galileo|last= Machamer|first= Peter|year= 1998|publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]|location= |isbn= 0-521-58841-3|page= 306}}</ref> In 1981 [[John Paul II]], then [[pope]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], spoke of the relationship this way: "The Bible itself speaks to us of the origin of the universe and its make-up, not in order to provide us with a scientific treatise, but in order to state the correct relationships of man with God and with the universe. Sacred Scripture wishes simply to declare that the world was created by God, and in order to teach this truth it expresses itself in the terms of the cosmology in use at the time of the writer".<ref>Pope [[John Paul II]], 3 October 1981 to the Pontifical Academy of Science, [http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/JP2COSM.HTM "Cosmology and Fundamental Physics"]</ref> The influence of the Church on Western letters and learning has been formidable. The ancient texts of the Bible have deeply influenced Western art, literature and culture. For centuries following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, small monastic communities were practically the only outposts of literacy in Western Europe. In time, the Cathedral schools developed into Europe's earliest universities and the church has established thousands of primary, secondary and tertiary institutions throughout the world in the centuries since. The Church and clergymen have also sought at different times to censor texts and scholars. Thus different schools of opinion exist as to the role and influence of the Church in relation to western letters and learning. One view, first propounded by [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment philosophers]], asserts that the Church's doctrines are entirely superstitious and have hindered the progress of civilization. [[Communist states]] have made similar arguments in their education in order to inculcate a negative view of Catholicism (and religion in general) in their citizens. The most famous incidents cited by such critics are narratives of the Church in relation to [[Copernicus]], [[Galileo Galilei]] and [[Johannes Kepler]]. In opposition to this view, some historians of science, including non-Catholics such as [[J.L. Heilbron]],<ref>{{cite web |title=J.L. Heilbron|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/contribhome.php?get=heil01 |publisher=London Review of Books |accessdate=15 September 2006}}</ref> [[Alistair Cameron Crombie|A.C. Crombie]], [[David C. Lindberg|David Lindberg]],<ref>{{cite book |title=When Science and Christianity Meet |author=[[Lindberg, David C.]] |date=October 2003 |author2=[[Numbers, Ronald L.]] |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-48214-6}}</ref> [[Edward Grant (Historian and philosopher)|Edward Grant]], [[Thomas Goldstein (Historian of Science)|Thomas Goldstein]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Dawn of Modern Science: From the Ancient Greeks to the Renaissance |last=Goldstein |first=Thomas |publisher=Da Capo Press |date=April 1995 |isbn=0-306-80637-1}}</ref> and Ted Davis, have argued that the Church had a significant, positive influence on the development of Western civilization. They hold that, not only did monks save and cultivate the remnants of ancient civilization during the barbarian invasions, but that the Church promoted learning and science through its sponsorship of many [[medieval university|universities]] which, under its leadership, grew rapidly in Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries. St.[[Thomas Aquinas]], the Church's "model theologian," argued that reason is in harmony with faith, and that reason can contribute to a deeper understanding of revelation, and so encouraged intellectual development.<ref>{{cite web |title=''Fides et Ratio'' (Faith and Reason), IV|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/ENCYC/JP2FIDES.HTM#Ch4b |author=Pope John Paul II |date=September 1998 |accessdate=15 September 2006}}</ref> The Church's priest-scientists, many of whom were [[Jesuit]]s, have been among the leading lights in [[astronomy]], [[genetics]], [[geomagnetism]], [[meteorology]], [[seismology]], and [[solar physics]], becoming some of the "fathers" of these sciences. Examples include important churchmen such as the [[Augustinian]] abbot [[Gregor Mendel]] (pioneer in the study of genetics), [[Roger Bacon]] (a [[Franciscan]] friar who was one of the early advocates of the [[scientific method]]), and Belgian priest [[Georges Lemaître]] (the first to propose the [[Big Bang]] theory). Other notable priest scientists have included [[Albertus Magnus]], [[Robert Grosseteste]], [[Nicholas Steno]], [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi|Francesco Grimaldi]], [[Giovanni Battista Riccioli|Giambattista Riccioli]], [[Roger Boscovich]], and [[Athanasius Kircher]]. Even more numerous are Catholic laity involved in science:[[Henri Becquerel]] who discovered [[radioactivity]]; [[Galvani]], [[Alessandro Volta|Volta]], [[Ampere]], [[Guglielmo Marconi|Marconi]], pioneers in [[electricity]] and [[telecommunications]]; [[Lavoisier]], "father of modern [[chemistry]]"; [[Vesalius]], founder of modern [[human anatomy]]; and [[Cauchy]], one of the mathematicians who laid the rigorous foundations of [[calculus]]. Throughout history many [[List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists|Roman Catholic clerics]] have made significant contributions to science. These cleric-scientists include [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], [[Gregor Mendel]], [[Georges Lemaître]], [[Albertus Magnus]], [[Roger Bacon]], [[Pierre Gassendi]], [[Roger Joseph Boscovich]], [[Marin Mersenne]], [[Bernard Bolzano]], [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi]], [[Nicole Oresme]], [[Jean Buridan]], [[Robert Grosseteste]], [[Christopher Clavius]], [[Nicolas Steno]], [[Athanasius Kircher]], [[Giovanni Battista Riccioli]], [[William of Ockham]], and others. The Catholic Church has also produced many [[List of Catholic scientists|lay scientists and mathematicians]]. === Jesuits in science === {{Main|List of Jesuit scientists}} [[File:Ricci Guangqi 2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Matteo Ricci]] (left) and [[Xu Guangqi]] (right) in the Chinese edition of ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'' published in 1607.]] The Jesuits have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. For example, the Jesuits have dedicated significant study to earthquakes, and [[seismology]] has been described as "the Jesuit science".<ref>Susan Elizabeth Hough, ''Richter's Scale: Measure of an Earthquake, Measure of a Man'', Princeton University Press, 2007, {{ISBN|0-691-12807-3}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rvmDeAxEiO8C&pg=PA68 p. 68.]</ref> The Jesuits have been described as "the single most important contributor to experimental physics in the seventeenth century".<ref>{{cite book|first1=David C.|last1=Lindberg|first2=Ronald Leslie|last2=Numbers|authorlink1=David C. Lindberg|authorlink2=Ronald Numbers|title=God and nature. Historical essays on the encounter between Christianity and science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beRh2rLUsMIC&hl=en|year=1986|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=beRh2rLUsMIC&hl=en&pg=PA154&dq=%22the+single+most+important+contributor+to+experimental+physics+in+the+seventeenth+century.%22 154]|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|location=[[Berkeley, California]]|id={{ISBN|0-520-05538-1}}; {{ISBN|978-052005-538-4}}}}</ref> According to [[Jonathan Wright (historian)|Jonathan Wright]] in his book ''God's Soldiers'', by the eighteenth century the Jesuits had "contributed to the development of pendulum clocks, pantographs, barometers, reflecting telescopes and microscopes, to scientific fields as various as magnetism, optics and electricity. They observed, in some cases before anyone else, the colored bands on [[Jupiter]]'s surface, the Andromeda nebula and Saturn's rings. They theorized about the circulation of the blood (independently of [[William Harvey|Harvey]]), the theoretical possibility of flight, the way the moon affected the tides, and the wave-like nature of light."<ref>{{cite book|first=Jonathan|last=Wright|authorlink=Jonathan Wright (historian)|title=God's Soldiers. Adventure, Politics, Intrigue, and Power--A History of the Jesuits|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KBZAAAAYAAJ&hl=en|publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|The Doubleday Religious Publishing Group]]|location=New York City|year=2005|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0KBZAAAAYAAJ&hl=en&q=%22They+had+contributed+to+the+development+of+pendulum+clocks,+pantographs,+barometers,+reflecting+telescopes,+and+microscopes,+to+scientific+fields+as+various+as+magnetism,+optics,+and+electricity.+They+observed,+in+some+cases+before+anyone+else,+the+colored+bands+on+Jupiter's+surface,+the+Andromeda+nebula+and+Saturn's+rings.+They+theorized+about+the+circulation+of+the+blood+(independently+of+Harvey),+the+theoretical+possibility+of+flight,+the+way+the+moon+affected+the+tides,+and+thewave-like+nature+of+light.%22 200]|id={{ISBN|0-385-50080-7}}; {{ISBN|978-038550-080-7}}}}</ref> The [[Jesuit China missions]] of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. One modern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were "regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography".<ref>Patricia Buckley Ebrey, p. 212.</ref> The Society of Jesus introduced, according to [[Thomas Woods]], "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible".<ref>{{cite book|first=Thomas E.|last=Woods|authorlink=Thomas Woods|title=How The Catholic Church Built Western Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zVDR2ZePzvUC&hl=en|publisher=[[Regnery Publishing]]|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2005|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zVDR2ZePzvUC&hl=en&pg=PA101&dq=%22a+substantial+body+of+scientific+knowledge+and+a+vast+array+of+mental+tools+for+understanding+the+physical+universe,+including+the+Euclidean+geometry+that+made+planetary+motion+comprehensible.%22 101]|id={{ISBN|0-895-26038-7}}; {{ISBN|978-089526-038-3}}}}</ref> Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China. == Influence of a biblical world view on early modern science == According to [[Andrew Dickson White]]'s [[A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom]] from the 19th century, a biblical world view affected negatively the progress of science through time. Dickinson also argues that immediately following the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] matters were even worse. The interpretations of Scripture by Luther and Calvin became as sacred to their followers as the Scripture itself. For instance, when [[Georg Calixtus]] ventured, in interpreting the Psalms, to question the accepted belief that "the waters above the heavens" were contained in a vast receptacle upheld by a solid vault, he was bitterly denounced as heretical.<ref>Andrew Dickson White. History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (Kindle Locations 1970–2132)</ref> Today, much of the scholarship in which the conflict thesis was originally based is considered to be inaccurate. For instance, the claim that early Christians rejected scientific findings by the Greco-Romans is false, since the "handmaiden" view of secular studies was seen to shed light on theology. This view was widely adapted throughout the early medieval period and afterwards by theologians (such as Augustine) and ultimately resulted in fostering interest in knowledge about nature through time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lindberg|first=David|title=Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths About Science and Religion|chapter=Myth 1: That the Rise of Christianity was Responsible for the Demise of Ancient Science|year=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-05741-8|pages=15–18|editor=Ronald Numbers}}</ref> Also, the claim that people of the [[Middle Ages]] widely believed that the [[Flat Earth|Earth was flat]] was first propagated in the same period that originated the conflict thesis<ref name="flat">Jeffrey Russell. Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians. Praeger Paperback; New Ed edition (January 30, 1997). {{ISBN|0-275-95904-X}}; {{ISBN|978-0-275-95904-3}}.</ref> and is still very common in popular culture. Modern scholars regard this claim as mistaken, as the contemporary historians of science [[David C. Lindberg]] and [[Ronald L. Numbers]] write: "there was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [earth's] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference."<ref name="flat" /><ref>Quotation from [[David C. Lindberg]] and [[Ronald L. Numbers]] in [http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1987/PSCF9-87Lindberg.html Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science]. Studies in the History of Science and Christianity.</ref> From the fall of Rome to the time of Columbus, all major scholars and many vernacular writers interested in the physical shape of the earth held a spherical view with the exception of Lactantius and Cosmas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cormack|first=Leslie|title=Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths About Science and Religion|chapter=Myth 3: That Medieval Christians Taught that he Earth was Flat|year=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-05741-8|pages=28–34|editor=Ronald Numbers}}</ref> [[File:Active Christians in Science.jpg|right|thumb|Set of pictures for a number of notable [[Scientists]] self-identified as [[Christians]]: [[Isaac Newton]], [[Robert Boyle]], [[Francis Bacon]] and [[Johannes Kepler]].]] [[H. Floris Cohen]] argued for a biblical Protestant, but not excluding Catholicism, influence on the early development of modern science.<ref name=cohen>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wu8b2NAqnb0C The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry], [[H. Floris Cohen]], University of Chicago Press 1994, 680 pages, {{ISBN|0-226-11280-2}}, pages 308-321</ref> He presented Dutch historian [[Reijer Hooykaas|R. Hooykaas]]' argument that a biblical world-view holds all the necessary antidotes for the hubris of Greek rationalism: a respect for manual labour, leading to more experimentation and [[empiricism]], and a supreme God that left nature and open to emulation and manipulation.<ref name=cohen /> It supports the idea early modern science rose due to a combination of Greek and biblical thought.<ref>"Finally, and most importantly, Hooykaas does not of course claim that the Scientific Revolution was exclusively the work of Protestant scholars." Cohen(1994) p 313</ref><ref>Cohen(1994) p 313. Hooykaas puts it more poetically: "Metaphorically speaking, whereas the bodily ingredients of science may have been Greek, its vitamins and hormones were biblical."</ref> Oxford historian [[Peter Harrison (historian)|Peter Harrison]] is another who has argued that a biblical worldview was significant for the development of modern science. Harrison contends that Protestant approaches to the book of scripture had significant, if largely unintended, consequences for the interpretation of the book of nature.<ref>Peter Harrison, ''The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science'' (Cambridge, 1998).</ref> {{Page needed|date=July 2013}} Harrison has also suggested that literal readings of the Genesis narratives of the Creation and Fall motivated and legitimated scientific activity in seventeenth-century England. For many of its seventeenth-century practitioners, science was imagined to be a means of restoring a human dominion over nature that had been lost as a consequence of the Fall.<ref>Peter Harrison, ''The Fall of Man and the Foundations of Science'' (Cambridge, 2007); see also Charles Webster, ''The Great Instauration'' (London: Duckworth, 1975)</ref>{{Page needed|date=July 2013}} Historian and professor of religion [[Eugene Marion Klaaren|Eugene M. Klaaren]] holds that "a belief in divine creation" was central to an emergence of science in seventeenth-century England. The philosopher [[Michael Foster (philosopher)|Michael Foster]] has published analytical philosophy connecting Christian doctrines of creation with empiricism. Historian William B. Ashworth has argued against the historical notion of distinctive mind-sets and the idea of Catholic and Protestant sciences.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hs2edDIGCqEC|title=God and Nature|work=google.com}}</ref> Historians James R. Jacob and Margaret C. Jacob have argued for a linkage between seventeenth century [[Anglican]] intellectual transformations and influential English scientists (e.g., [[Robert Boyle]] and [[Isaac Newton]]).<ref>[http://www.compilerpress.atfreeweb.com/Anno%20Jacob%20&%20Jacob%20Anglican%20Fdn%20of%20Modern%20Science.htm The Anglican Origins of Modern Science], [[Isis (journal)|Isis]], Volume 71, Issue 2, June 1980, 251-267; this is also noted on page 366 of ''Science and Religion'', [[John Hedley Brooke]], 1991, [[Cambridge University Press]]</ref> [[John Dillenberger]] and [[Christopher B. Kaiser]] have written theological surveys, which also cover additional interactions occurring in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries.<ref>[[John Dillenberger]], ''Protestant Thought and Natural Science'' ([[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]], 1960).</ref><ref>[[Christopher B. Kaiser]], ''Creation and the History of Science'' ([[Eerdmans]], 1991).</ref> Philosopher of Religion, Richard Jones, has written a philosophical critique of the "dependency thesis" which assumes that modern science emerged from Christian sources and doctrines. Though he acknowledges that modern science emerged in a religious framework, that Christinaity greatly elevated the importance of science by sanctioning and religiously legitimizing it in medieval period, and that Christianity created a favorable social context for it to grow; he argues that direct Christian beliefs or doctrines were not primary source of scientific pursuits by natural philosophers, nor was Christianity, in and of itself, exclusively or directly necessary in developing or practicing modern science. [[Oxford University]] historian and theologian [[John Hedley Brooke]] wrote that "when natural philosophers referred to ''laws'' of nature, they were not glibly choosing that metaphor. Laws were the result of legislation by an intelligent deity. Thus the philosopher [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650) insisted that he was discovering the "laws that God has put into nature." Later Newton would declare that the regulation of the solar system presupposed the "counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being."<ref>[[John Hedley Brooke]], ''Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives'', 1991, [[Cambridge University Press]], {{ISBN|0-521-23961-3}}, page 19. See also Peter Harrison, "Newtonian Science, Miracles, and the Laws of Nature", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 56 (1995), 531-53.</ref> Historian [[Ronald L. Numbers]] stated that this thesis "received a boost" from mathematician and philosopher [[Alfred North Whitehead]]'s ''Science and the Modern World'' (1925). Numbers has also argued, "Despite the manifest shortcomings of the claim that Christianity gave birth to science—most glaringly, it ignores or minimizes the contributions of ancient Greeks and medieval Muslims—it too, refuses to succumb to the death it deserves."<ref>''Science and Christianity in pulpit and pew'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, [[Ronald L. Numbers]], p. 4, and p.138 n. 3 where Numbers specifically raises his concerns with regards to the works of [[Michael B. Foster]], [[Reijer Hooykaas]], [[Eugene M. Klaaren]], and [[Stanley L. Jaki]]</ref> The sociologist [[Rodney Stark]] of [[Baylor University]], argued in contrast that "Christian theology was essential for the rise of science."<ref>[[Rodney Stark]], ''For the glory of God: how monotheism led to reformations, science, witch-hunts and the end of slavery'', 2003, [[Princeton University Press]], {{ISBN|0-691-11436-6}}, page 123</ref> == Protestant influence on science == [[File:Butler Library - 1000px - AC.jpg|thumb|[[Columbia University]] was established by the [[Church of England]].]] [[Protestantism]] had an important influence on science. According to the [[Merton Thesis]] there was a positive [[correlation]] between the rise of [[Puritanism]] and [[Protestant]] [[Pietism]] on the one hand and early [[experimental science]] on the other.<ref name=sztompka2003>[[Piotr Sztompka|Sztompka, Piotr]] (2003), ''Robert King Merton'', in ''[[George Ritzer|Ritzer, George]], [[The Blackwell Companion to Major Contemporary Social Theorists]], Malden, Massachusetts Oxford: Blackwell, p. 13, {{ISBN|978-1-4051-0595-8}}</ref> The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental techniques and [[methodology]]; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th-century [[England]] and the religious [[demography]] of the [[Royal Society]] (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by a [[correlation]] between Protestantism and the scientific values.<ref name=gregory1998>Gregory, Andrew (1998), Handout for course 'The Scientific Revolution' at The Scientific Revolution</ref> In his theory, [[Robert K. Merton]] focused on English Puritanism and [[Spener|German Pietism]] as having been responsible for the development of the [[scientific revolution]] of the 17th and 18th centuries. Merton explained that the connection between [[religious affiliation]] and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the [[ascetic]] Protestant values and those of modern science.<ref name=becker1992>Becker, George (1992), ''The Merton Thesis: Oetinger and German Pietism, a significant negative case,'' [[Sociological Forum]] (Springer) 7 (4), pp. 642-660</ref> Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to study [[God]]'s influence on the world and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research.<ref name=sztompka2003 /> According of ''Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States'' by [[Harriet Zuckerman]], a review of American Nobel prizes winners awarded between 1901 and 1972, 72% of American [[Nobel Prizes|Nobel Prize]] Laureates, have identified from [[Protestant]] background.<ref name="Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United Statesh">[[Harriet Zuckerman]], ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HAHCzJfmD5IC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Scientific+Elite:+Nobel+Laureates+in+the+United+States&hl=iw&sa=X&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAGoVChMIxKistOqUxwIVzNUUCh0pGgC-#v=onepage&q=Scientific%20Elite%3A%20Nobel%20Laureates%20in%20the%20United%20States&f=false Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States]'' New York, The Free Pres, 1977 , p.68: Protestants turn up among the American-reared laureates in slightly greater proportion to their numbers in the general population. Thus 72 percent of the seventy-one laureates but about two thirds of the American population were reared in one or another Protestant denomination-)</ref> Overall, Protestant have won a total of 84.2% of all the American Nobel Prizes in [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]],<ref name="Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United Statesh"/> 60% in [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Medicine]],<ref name="Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United Statesh"/> 58.6% in [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Physics]],<ref name="Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United Statesh"/> between 1901 and 1972. === Quakers in science === {{See also|Quakers in science}} The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as [[Quakers]], encouraged some values which may have been conducive to encouraging scientific talents. A theory suggested by [[David Hackett Fischer]] in his book ''Albion's Seed'' indicated early Quakers in the US preferred "practical study" to the more traditional studies of [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] or [[Latin]] popular with the elite. Another theory suggests their avoidance of dogma or clergy gave them a greater flexibility in response to science. Despite those arguments a major factor is agreed to be that the Quakers were initially discouraged or forbidden to go to the major law or humanities schools in Britain due to the [[Test Act]]. They also at times faced similar discriminations in the United States, as many of the colonial universities had a [[Puritan]] or [[Anglican]] orientation. This led them to attend "Godless" institutions or forced them to rely on hands-on scientific experimentation rather than academia. Because of these issues it has been stated Quakers are better represented in science than most religions. There are sources, Pendlehill {{harv|Thomas|2000}} and [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], that indicate that for over two centuries they were overrepresented in the [[Royal Society]]. Mention is made of this possibility in studies referenced in [[religiosity and intelligence]] and in a book by Arthur Raistrick. Whether this is still accurate, there have been several noteworthy members of this denomination in science. The following names a few. == Eastern Christianity influence on science == {{See also|Christian influences in Islam|Byzantine science}} [[File:Hunayn ibn-Ishaq al-'Ibadi Isagoge.jpg|right|thumb|luminure from the [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq|Hunayn ibn-Ishaq al-'Ibadi]] manuscript of the Isagoge. Hunayn ibn-Ishaq a famous and influential scholar, physician, and scientist of Assyrian Christian descent]] [[Christians]] (particularly [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic Civilization during the [[Ummayads|Ummayad]] and the [[Abbasids|Abbasid]] periods by translating works of [[Greek philosophers]] to [[Syriac Language|Syriac]] and afterwards to [[Arabic Language|Arabic]].<ref name="Hill, Donald 1993. p.4">Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p.4</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages|author=Brague, Rémi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8YjEkLPXNYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:9780226070803#v=onepage&q=House%20of%20Wisdom&f=false|accessdate=11 Feb 2014|isbn=9780226070803|page=164|date=2009-04-15}}</ref><ref>Ferguson, Kitty [https://books.google.com/books?id=trM7NJz011oC&pg=PT100&dq=preserve+ancient+knowledge+syria&hl=en&sa=X&ei=9DwJUsuGNsbyrAGIyYC4Bw&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=preserve%20ancient%20knowledge%20syria&f=false Pythagoras: His Lives and the Legacy of a Rational Universe] Walker Publishing Company, New York, 2008, (page number not available – occurs toward end of Chapter 13, "The Wrap-up of Antiquity"). "It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language."</ref> During the 4th through the 7th centuries, scholarly work in the Syriac and Greek languages was either newly initiated, or carried on from the Hellenistic period. Centers of learning and of transmission of classical wisdom included colleges such as the [[School of Nisibis]], and later the [[School of Edessa]], and the renowned hospital and medical [[Academy of Gondishapur|academy of Jundishapur]]; libraries included the [[Library of Alexandria]] and the [[Imperial Library of Constantinople]]; other centers of translation and learning functioned at [[Merv]], [[Thessaloniki|Salonika]], [[Nishapur]] and [[Ctesiphon]], situated just south of what later became Baghdad.<ref>Kaser, Karl [https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC&pg=PA137&dq=preserve+ancient+knowledge+syria&hl=en&sa=X&ei=9DwJUsuGNsbyrAGIyYC4Bw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=preserve%20ancient%20knowledge%20syria&f=false The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History] p. 135.</ref><ref>Yazberdiyev, Dr. Almaz [http://www.turkmenhost.com/documents/Journal2/merv.html Libraries of Ancient Merv] Dr. Yazberdiyev is Director of the Library of the Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan, Ashgabat.</ref> The [[House of Wisdom]] was a [[library]], [[translation]] institute, and academy established in [[Abbasid]]-era [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]].<ref>Hyman and Walsh ''Philosophy in the Middle Ages'' Indianapolis, 3rd edition, p. 216</ref><ref>Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach, Editors, ''Medieval Islamic Civilization'' Vol.1, A - K, Index, 2006, p. 451</ref> Nestorians played a prominent role in the formation of Arab culture,<ref name="Nestorian">Britannica, [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorian Nestorian]</ref> with the [[Jundishapur]] school being prominent in the late [[Sassanid]], Umayyad and early Abbasid periods.<ref>''The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 22:2'' Mehmet Mahfuz Söylemez, ''The Jundishapur School: Its History, Structure, and Functions'', p.3.</ref> Notably, eight generations of the Nestorian [[Bukhtishu]] family served as private doctors to caliphs and sultans between the 8th and 11th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bonner|last2=Ener|last3=Singer|first1=Bonner|first2=Mine|first3=Amy|title=Poverty and charity in Middle Eastern contexts|year=2003|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5737-5|page=97|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zBp3y5lWz58C&pg=PA97}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ruano|last2=Burgos|first1=Eloy Benito |first2=Manuel Espadas|title=17e Congrès international des sciences historiques: Madrid, du 26 août au 2 septembre 1990|year=1992|publisher=Comité international des sciences historiques|isbn=978-84-600-8154-8|page=527|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXUoAQAAIAAJ&dq=17e+Congr%C3%A8s+international+des+sciences+historiques&q=bukhtishu}}</ref> == Criticism == Events in [[Christendom|Christian Europe]] such as the [[Galileo affair]], associated with the [[Scientific revolution]] and the [[Age of Enlightenment]], led scholars such as [[John William Draper]] to postulate a [[conflict thesis]], holding that religion and science have been in conflict methodologically, factually and politically throughout history. This thesis is held by some contemporary scientists such as [[Peter Atkins]], [[Sean M. Carroll]], [[Donald Prothero]] and [[Jerry Coyne]]. While the conflict thesis remains popular in [[anti-theist]]ic circles, it has lost favor among most contemporary historians of science<ref name="Russel, C.A. 2002 7">{{cite book|author=Russel, C.A.|editor=Ferngren, G.B.|year=2002|title=Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction|page=7|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|isbn=0-8018-7038-0|quote=The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science}}</ref><ref name=Shapin1996>{{cite book| author = Shapin, S.| year = 1996| title = The Scientific Revolution| page = 195| publisher = [[University of Chicago Press]]| isbn =| quote = In the late Victorian period it was common to write about the ‘warfare between science and religion’ and to presume that the two bodies of culture must always have been in conflict. However, it is a very long time since these attitudes have been held by historians of science.}}</ref><ref name=Brooke1991>{{cite book| author = Brooke, J. H.| year = 1991| title = Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives| page= 42| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]| isbn =| quote = In its traditional forms, the conflict thesis has been largely discredited.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ferngren, G.B.|editor=Ferngren, G.B.|year=2002|title=Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction|page=x|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|isbn=0-8018-7038-0|quote=... while [John] Brooke's view [of a complexity thesis rather than an historical conflict thesis] has gained widespread acceptance among professional historians of science, the traditional view remains strong elsewhere, not least in the popular mind.}}</ref> and the majority of scientists in elite universities in the US do not hold a conflict view.<ref name="elites scientists religion">{{cite journal|last=Ecklund|first=Elaine Howard|author2=Park, Jerry Z. |title=Conflict Between Religion and Science Among Academic Scientists?|year=2009|journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|volume=48|issue=2|pages=276–292|doi=10.1111/j.1468-5906.2009.01447.x}}</ref> == See also == {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break}} *[[Conflict thesis]] *[[Continuity thesis]] *[[Deep ecology]] *[[Demarcation problem]] *[[Faith and rationality]] *[[History of science]] *''[[Issues in Science and Religion]]'' *[[List of scholars on the relationship between religion and science]] *[[Natural theology]] *[[Philosophy of science]] *[[Politicization of science]] *[[Religious skepticism]] *[[Psychology of religion]] *[[Scientific method and religion]] *[[Theistic evolution]] {{Col-break}} '''By tradition:''' *[[List of Christians in science and technology]] *[[List of Christian Nobel laureates]] *[[Catholic Church and science]] and [[Catholic Church and evolution]] *[[List of Catholic clergy scientists]] *[[List of lay Catholic scientists]] *[[Merton thesis]] *[[Parson-naturalist]] *[[Quakers in science]] '''In the US:''' *[[American Scientific Affiliation]] *[[Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences]] *[[Creation–evolution controversy]] *[[Intelligent design]] *[[John Templeton Foundation]] {{Col-break}} {{Portal|Science}} {{Col-end}} == Notes == {{Reflist|30em}} == External links == * [https://www.wisdomlib.org/christianity/book/christianity-and-the-scientist/index.html Christianity And The Scientist by Ian G. Barbour] * [http://www.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/cis/ Cambridge Christians in Science (CiS) group] * [http://www.cis.org.uk/ Christians in Science website] * [http://users.ox.ac.uk/~theo0038/ Ian Ramsey Centre, Oxford] * [http://home.earthlink.net/~jjkeggi/SOSc/ The Society of Ordained Scientists]-Mostly [[Church of England]] * [http://www.asa3.org/ "Science in Christian Perspective" The (ASA)] * [http://www.csca.ca/ Canadian Scientific and Christian Affiliation (CSCA)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080329223546/http://www.issr.org.uk/about/founding_members.asp The International Society for Science & Religion's founding members.(Of various faiths including Christianity)] * [http://www.acmsonline.org/ Association of Christians in the Mathematical Sciences] * [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=avalos_18_4 Secular Humanism.org article on Science and Religion] {{Christianity footer}} [[Category:Religion and science]] [[Category:History of science]] [[Category:Christianity and science]]'