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Excavations at the Temple Mount

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Excavations adjacent to Robinson's Arch
Robinson's Arch: the springers are still jutting out of the Western Wall

A number of archaeological excavations at the Temple Mount—a celebrated and contentious religious site in the Old City of Jerusalem—have taken place over the last 150 years. Excavations in the area represent one of the more sensitive areas of all archaeological excavations in Jerusalem.

The term Temple Mount usually refers to the artificially expanded platform at the top of the natural hill and the compound situated there. The compound is delineated by four ancient retaining walls, and is of high religious significance. The compound itself has only very rarely been the object of archaeological work, unlike the area surrounding it, which has been quite intensively excavated, especially along the southern and western walls.

The first archaeological work was undertaken by the British Royal Engineers in the 1860s in the Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem and subsequently the PEF Survey of Palestine.[1]

Since Israel took control of the Old City in 1967, archaeological excavations in the vicinity of the Mount have been undertaken by Israel. Any type of earthmoving work inside the compound however, has mainly been reserved to the Jordanian/Palestinian-led Jerusalem Islamic Waqf, the Muslim authority in charge of the Al-Aqsa compound, who employs its own archaeologist and who at times has applied for the services of Jordanian and Egyptian restoration specialists. Work done by both sides has been controversial and criticized. Israeli and Jewish groups have criticized excavations conducted by the Waqf, with the Muslim side criticizing work done by the Israeli side. International organizations, such as UNESCO, sometimes intervene in the conflicts.

History of archaeological work and reactions to it

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Due to the extreme political sensitivity of the site, few archaeological excavations have been conducted on the Temple Mount itself. Protests commonly occur whenever archaeologists conduct projects on or near the Mount.

For actual finds from the surveys and digs inside the compound and listed in this section, please see the next section, Finds from the compound.

PEF work in- and outside the compound

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Aside from visual observation of surface features, most other archaeological knowledge of the site comes from the 19th-century survey carried out by Charles Wilson (Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem) and Charles Warren (PEF Survey of Palestine). Warren was one of the first to excavate this area, exemplifying a new era of Biblical archaeology in the 1870s.[1] His exploration was under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund, a society with a relationship with the Corps of Royal Engineers. The group was conducting a study and survey of the Levant region, also known as Palestine.[2][3] Warren and his team improved the topographic map of Jerusalem and discovered the ancient water systems that lay beneath the city of Jerusalem.[4]

Mandate-time work inside the compound

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During the 1930s, repairs being made to the al-Aqsa mosque enabled Robert Hamilton to examine parts of the structure usually hidden, including below the floor.[5]

Post-1967

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Work outside the compound

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In 1967 the Religious Affairs Ministry began an unlicensed excavation. Starting at the Western Wall Plaza, workers dug northward, under the Old City's Muslim Quarter.[6]

Beginning in 1968, Israeli archaeologists began excavations at the foot of the Temple Mount, immediately south of the al-Aqsa Mosque, uncovering Roman, Umayyad and Crusader remains.[7]

In 1970, Israeli authorities commenced intensive excavations to the south and west of the compound. Over the period 1970–1988, the Israeli authorities excavated a tunnel passing along the western wall of the Temple Mount, northwards from the prayer plaza of the Western Wall, that became known as the Western Wall Tunnel. They sometimes used mechanical excavators under the supervision of archaeologists. Palestinians claim that both of these have caused cracks and structural weakening of the buildings in the Muslim Quarter of the city above. Israelis confirmed this danger:

"The Moslem authorities were concerned about the ministry tunnel along the Temple Mount wall, and not without cause. Two incidents during the Mazar dig along the southern wall had sounded alarm bells. Technion engineers had already measured a slight movement in part of the southern wall during the excavations...There was no penetration of the Mount itself or danger to holy places, but midway in the tunnel's progress large cracks appeared in one of the residential buildings in the Moslem Quarter, 12 meters above the excavation. The dig was halted until steel buttresses secured the building."[8]

In an article published in the Egyptian Al-Ahram Weekly in 2007, Palestinian journalist Khaled Amayreh listed Israeli encroachments on the Al-Aqsa Mosque: In 1977, digging continued and a large ancient tunnel was opened below the women's prayer area. A further tunnel was unearthed under the mosque,[which?][dubious – discuss] going from east to west, in 1979. Amayreh further claimed that in March 1984, the Archaeological Department of the Israeli Ministry of Religious Affairs dug a tunnel near the western portion of the mosque, endangering the Islamic "Majlis" or council building. Writing in 1991, Israeli archaeologist Israel Finkelstein denied the claims, asserting that "the closest excavation to the mosque is some 70 meters to its south".[9][10][11]

1981 breach of Warren's Gate

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In 1981, Yehuda Meir Getz, rabbi of the Western Wall, had workmen clear the debris from the gateway of the ancient Warren's Gate. There were allegations the intention of this excavation was to access the innards of the Temple Mount itself from the Western Wall Tunnel. Arabs on the Mount heard banging from one of the more than two dozen cisterns on the Mount. Israeli Government officials, upon being notified of the unauthorized breach, immediately ordered Warren's Gate sealed. The 2,000-year-old stone gate was filled with cement, and remains cemented shut today.[8]

Mutual accusation of destruction, neglect

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Archaeologist Léon Pressouyre, a UNESCO envoy who visited the site[which?] in 1998 and claims to have been prevented from meeting Israeli officials (in his own words, "Mr Avi Shoket, Israel's permanent delegate to UNESCO, had repeatedly opposed my mission and, when I expressed the wish to meet with his successor, Uri Gabay, I was denied an appointment"),[12] accuses the Israeli government of culpably neglecting to protect the Islamic period buildings uncovered in Israeli excavations. Later, Prof. Oleg Grabar of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton replaced Leon Pressouyre as the UNESCO envoy to investigate the Israeli allegations that antiquities are being destroyed by the Waqf on the Temple Mount.[13] Initially, Grabar was denied access to the buildings by Israel for over a year, allegedly due to the threat of violence resulting from the al-Aqsa Intifada. His eventual conclusion was that the monuments are deteriorating largely because of conflicts over who is responsible for them, the Jordanian government, the local Palestinian Authority or the Israeli government.

Western Wall Tunnel (1996)

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Main article: Western Wall Tunnel
Concrete supports in the tunnel.

After the Six-Day War, the Ministry of Religious Affairs of Israel began the excavations aimed at exposing the continuation of the Western Wall. The excavations lasted almost twenty years and revealed many previously unknown facts about the history and geography of the Temple Mount.

The tunnel exposes a total length of 500 m (a third of a mile) of the wall, revealing the methods of construction and the various activities in the vicinity of the Temple Mount. The excavations included many archaeological finds along the way, including discoveries from the Herodian period (streets, monumental masonry), sections of a reconstruction of the Western Wall dating to the Umayyad period, and various structures dating to the Ayyubid, Mamluk, and Hasmonean periods constructed to support buildings in the vicinity of the Temple Mount. Warren's Gate lies about 150 feet (46 m) into the tunnel. At the northern portion of the Western Wall, remains of a water channel, which originally supplied water to the Temple Mount, were found. The exact source of the channel is unknown, though it passes through an underground pool known as the Strouthion Pool. The water channel was dated to the Hasmonean period and was accordingly dubbed the Hasmonean Channel.[citation needed]

The biggest stone in the Western Wall often called the Western Stone is also revealed within the tunnel and ranks as one of the heaviest objects ever lifted by human beings without powered machinery. The stone has a length of 41 feet (12 meters) and an estimated width between 11.5 and 15 ft (3.5 and 4.6 meters) Estimates place its weight at 550 metric tons.[citation needed][14]

In 1996, Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu opened the Western Wall Tunnel near the site.[15][16] Fueled by the allegation that the tunnel would undermine the Temple Mount, Palestinians protested. Consequently, gun battles in the West Bank and Gaza Strip killed 54 Palestinians and 14 Israeli soldiers.[17]

Construction at Solomon's Stables (1996–1999)

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Main article: Solomon's Stables

In 1996 the Waqf began unauthorized construction in the structures known since Crusader times as Solomon's Stables, and in the Eastern Hulda Triple Gate passageway, allowing the area to be (re)opened as a prayer space called the Marwani Musalla, capable of accommodating 7,000 people. In 1997, the Western Hulda Double Gate passageway was converted into another mosque.[citation needed]

According to The New York Times, an emergency exit had been urged upon the Waqf by the Israeli police. In 1999, the Waqf agreed on its necessity, which was also acknowledged by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA). But the IAA criticized the Waqf's use of bulldozers, and said that salvation archaeology needed to be performed first.[17] Gabriel Barkay, an Israeli archaeology professor, said the construction demolished Crusader structures dating to the twelfth century, and went on without archaeological supervision. He said the workers used ancient stones from early Jewish structures in order to build modern ones.[18] Israel Finkelstein has described the project as "the greatest devastation to have recently been inflicted on Jerusalem's archaeological heritage".[11]

In 2000, an Israeli high court rejected a petition to halt construction, saying the matter should be left to the Israeli government. Ehud Olmert, then mayor of Jerusalem, also criticized the construction. He ordered a halt to the construction, on grounds of archaeological damage, defying an Israeli government decision to allow excavations at the site.[16] The Waqf rejected that Israel had any right to halt the construction. Formally, the Waqf does not recognize Israeli authority, though it had cooperated with Israel until the 1996 opening of Western Wall tunnel (see above).[17]

The Temple Mount Sifting Project is an archaeological project established in 2005 and dedicated to recovering archaeological artifacts from the 300 truckloads of topsoil removed from the Temple Mount by the Waqf during the construction of the underground el-Marwani Mosque from 1996 to 1999.[19] For the items recovered, see below in the "Findings from the compound" section and the Sifting Project article.

Southern wall bulge (2002-2004)

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In 2002, a bulge of about 27 inches (69 cm)[dubious – discuss] was reported in the southern retaining wall part of the Temple Mount. Archaeologists suspected Waqf excavations for a new mosque, using industrial diggers and heavy machinery, had weakened the stability of the southern Wall. It was feared that part of the wall could seriously deteriorate or even collapse. The Waqf would not permit detailed Israeli inspection but came to an agreement with Israel that led to a team of Jordanian engineers inspecting the wall in October. They recommended repair work that involved replacing or resetting most of the stones in the affected area, which covers 2,000 square feet (190 square metres) and is located 25 feet (7.6 m) from the top of the wall.[20] Repairs were completed before January 2004. The restoration of 250 square meters of wall cost 100,000 Jordanian dinars ($140,000).[21]

Eastern wall damage (2004)

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On February 11, 2004, the eastern wall of the Temple Mount was damaged by an earthquake. The damage threatens to topple sections of the wall into the area known as Solomon's Stables.[22][clarification needed]

Mughrabi Gate ramp collapse (2004)

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It is believed that on February 14, 2004, days after the earthquake, a winter storm destroyed the stone walkway leading from the Western Wall plaza to the Mughrabi Gate on the Temple Mount.[23][24] Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO) condemned the "excavations carried out by the Israeli occupying authorities under the Aqsa Mosque" which they claimed caused the collapse of the path.[25]

Vandalism (2005)

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In March 2005, the word "Allah" in foot-tall Arabic script was found newly carved into the ancient stones of the Temple Mount, about thirty feet off the ground. The act was viewed by Jews and archaeologists as vandalism. The graffiti on their holiest site caused great offense to Jews. The carving was attributed to the team of Jordanian engineers and Palestinian laborers in charge of strengthening that section[which?] of the wall.[26]

Mughrabi Gate ramp replaced by a bridge (2007-)

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Main article: Mughrabi Bridge

After a landslide in 2004 left the earthen ramp leading to the politically sensitive access point known as the Mughrabi Gate unsafe and in danger of collapse, the Israel Antiquities Authority started work on the construction of a temporary wooden pedestrian pathway to the Temple Mount.[27][28] Muslim officials accused Israel of designs on the foundations of Al Aqsa mosque.[9] Ismail Haniyeh—then Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority and Hamas leader[29]—called on Palestinians to unite to protest the excavations, while Fatah said they would end their ceasefire with Israel.[30] The excavations provoked anger throughout the Islamic world. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia called on the international community to stop the dig: "Israel's actions violate the mosque's sacred nature and risk destroying its religious and Islamic features."[31] Syria condemned Israel's excavations, saying they "pose a threat against the Islamic and Christian holy sites in Jerusalem."[32] Malaysia condemned Israel for the excavation works around and beneath the Al-Aqsa Mosque and for willfully destroying religious, cultural and heritage sites.[33] King Abdullah II of Jordan "strongly condemned the Israeli actions against worshipers at Al Aqsa Mosque, stressing that Jordan would continue its contacts with the Arab and Islamic worlds and the international community to halt Israel's excavation work in the area".[34] The secretary-general of the 57-member Organisation of the Islamic Conference, Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu, expressed his anguish and dismay at the world's silence on Israel's "blatant moves to Judaize Jerusalem and change the holy city's historic character." He said "the excavation work being carried out by Israel constituted the gravest threat ever to one of Islam's three holiest mosques."[35]

Israel denied all charges, calling them "ludicrous".[36] As a result of the furor, Israeli authorities installed cameras to film excavation work being carried out near the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The footage was broadcast live on the Internet, in an attempt to ease widespread anger in the Muslim world.[37]

A March 2007 UNESCO report on the incident[38] cleared the Israeli team of wrongdoing, saying that the excavations "concern areas external to the Western Wall and are limited to the surface of the pathway and its northern side ... [N]o work is being conducted inside the Haram es-Sharif, nor may the nature of the works underway be reported, at this stage, as constituting a threat to the stability of the Western Wall and the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The work area ends at approximately 10 metres distance from the Western Wall. It is conducted with light equipment, picks and shovels, and it is supervised and documented according to professional standards." The report nonetheless advised the cessation of work, as the aims of gathering information had been met, and consultation with concerned parties. On March 20, 2007, the Turkish Government sent a technical team to inspect and report on the excavations to the Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.[39][40]

Infrastructure trench inside compound (2007)

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In July 2007 the Waqf began digging a 400-metre-long, 1.5-metre-deep trench from the northern side of the Temple Mount compound to the Dome of the Rock[41] in order to replace 40-year-old[42] electric cables in the area. The dig, carried out by the Jerusalem Electricity Company, was approved by the Israeli police, but the Israel Antiquities Authority declined to comment whether it had approved the excavations. Israeli archaeologists accused the Waqf of a deliberate act of cultural vandalism. The Committee for the Prevention of Destruction of Antiquities on the Temple Mount criticized the use of a tractor for excavation at the Temple Mount "without real, professional and careful archaeological supervision involving meticulous documentation". Israeli Archaeologist Eilat Mazar said: "There is disappointment at the turning of a blind eye and the ongoing contempt for the tremendous archaeological importance of the Temple Mount ...",[41] "... Using heavy machinery and with little documentation, can damage ancient relics and erase evidence of the presence of the biblical structures. Any excavation, even if for technical reasons, must be documented, photographed and the dirt sifted for any remains of relics."[43] Dr. Gabriel Barkay slammed the way the excavations were being carried out stating that "They should be using a toothbrush, not a bulldozer".[44] He maintains that "some man-worked stones have been found in the trench ... as well as remnants of a wall that, according to all our estimations, are from a structure in one of the outer courtyards in the Holy Temple."[citation needed] Archaeologist Zachi Zweig said a tractor used to dig the trench damaged the foundation of a 7-yard-wide wall "that might have been a remnant of the Second Temple."[42]

The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Muhammad Ahmad Hussein, rejected the Israeli charges. "We don't harm the antiquities, we are the ones who are taking care of the antiquities, unlike others who destroy them."[42] Yusuf Natsheh of the Islamic Waqf dismissed the claims, saying "the area has been dug many times" and argued that "remains unearthed would be from the 16th or 17th century Ottoman period". He said that the work was urgently needed to maintain the al-Aqsa compound as an important religious institution. "We regret some Israeli groups try to use archaeology to achieve political ends, but their rules of archaeology do not apply to the Haram; it is a living religious site in an occupied land."[44]

In September 2007, the Orthodox Union condemned Waqf excavations on the Temple Mount.[45] The Anti-Defamation League's Abraham Foxman said work on the Temple Mount must stop immediately. "We are especially concerned because there is a history of Muslim religious leaders treating Israeli religious and cultural artifacts on the Temple Mount, not to mention the Jewish connection to Jerusalem, with contempt".[46]

Finds from the compound

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Charles Warren: water system

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Plan of The Noble Sanctuary (Haram al-Sharif) from "The survey of Western Palestine-Jerusalem" by Charles Warren

Charles Warren and his team, while working for the Palestine Exploration Fund's Survey of Palestine, discovered the water systems of ancient Jerusalem and added them to his improved topographic map of the city.[4]

Mandate era discoveries by Robert Hamilton

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Between 1938 and 1942, Robert Hamilton, director of the British Mandate Antiquities Department, carried out the only excavation undertaken at the Aqsa Mosque during the Mandate. Hamilton uncovered portions of a multicolor mosaic floor with geometric patterns, but did not publish them.[47] The date of the mosaic is disputed: Zachi Dvira considers that they are from the pre-Islamic Byzantine period, while Baruch, Reich and Sandhaus favor a much later Umayyad origin on account of their similarity to a mosaic from an Umayyad palace excavated adjacent to the Temple Mount's southern wall.[47] By comparing the photographs to Hamilton's excavation report, Di Cesare determined that they belong to the second phase of mosque construction in the Umayyad period.[48] Moreover, the mosaic designs were common in Islamic, Jewish and Christian buildings from the 2nd to the 8th century.[48] Di Cesare suggested that Hamilton didn't include the mosaics in his book because they were destroyed to explore beneath them.[48] Hamilton also uncovered a slab with the relief image of a centaur, dated to the 3rd century CE, believed to be a vestige of the Late Roman temple of Jupiter Capitolinus built on the Temple Mount after 135.[49]

  • 3rd-century Roman relief of a centaur reused as a paving stone inside Al-Aqsa Mosque.
    3rd-century Roman relief of a centaur reused as a paving stone inside Al-Aqsa Mosque.
  • Marble floor revealed during repair work at Al-Aqsa Mosque.
    Marble floor revealed during repair work at Al-Aqsa Mosque.

Exploration

Sifting project of Solomon's Stables dirt (2005-)

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The Temple Mount Sifting Project is an archaeological project started in 2005 with the goal of recovering archaeological artifacts from the 300 truckloads of soil removed by the Islamic Religious Trust (Waqf) from the Temple Mount compound's southeast area (sometimes called Solomon's Stables) during the 1996-1999 construction of the underground el-Marwani Mosque.[19] By 2006, the project had recovered numerous artifacts dating from the 8th to 7th centuries BCE from dirt removed in 1999. These include stone weights for weighing silver and a First Temple period bulla, or seal impression, containing ancient Hebrew writing, which may have belonged to a well-known family of priests mentioned in the Book of Jeremiah.[50]

Subterranean Tunnel System beneath Christ Church

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A tunnel under Christ Church near the Jaffa Gate was discovered in the 1840s, during construction of Christ Church. In 2001, Rafael Lewis explored this tunnel. It leads towards the Temple Mount. [51]

First Temple period finds (2007)

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In 2007, artifacts dating to the eighth to sixth centuries BCE were described as being possibly the first physical evidence of human activity at the Temple Mount during the First Temple period. The findings included animal bones; ceramic bowl rims, bases, and body sherds; the base of a juglet used to pour oil; the handle of a small juglet; and the rim of a storage jar.[52][53]

See also

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Associated sites and digs

References

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  1. ^ a b "The History of Excavations in the Ophel and in the Areas South and Southwest of the Temple Mount". Archpark.org.il. Archived from the original on July 21, 2011. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
  2. ^ Archaeologists Reveal Shocking Stories of Their Past, Jerusalem Post
  3. ^ "Palestine Exploration Fund moves to show Levantine heritage, culture off in London". Jordan Times. May 22, 2019. Retrieved July 26, 2019.
  4. ^ a b "Projects". The Palestine Exploration Fund. Archived from the original on January 3, 2019. Retrieved January 25, 2017.
  5. ^ Hamilton, R. W. (1949). The structural history of the Aqsa Mosque: a record of archaeological gleanings from the repairs of 1938-1942. London: Oxford University Press (for the Government of Palestine by Geoffrey Cumberlege). OCLC 755287785.
  6. ^ The end of days, Gershom Gorenberg
  7. ^ Jacqueline Schaalje, Special: The Temple Mount in Jerusalem Archived October 6, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
  8. ^ a b Abraham Rabinovich, Tunnel vision.
  9. ^ a b Amayreh, Khaled (February 2007). "Catalogue of provocations: Israel's encroachments upon the Al-Aqsa Mosque have not been sporadic, but, rather, a systematic endeavor". Al-Ahram Weekly. Archived from the original on November 15, 2008.
  10. ^ Dan Izenberg, The Jerusalem Post, July 19, 1991
  11. ^ a b Finkelstein, Israel (April 26, 2011). "In the Eye of Jerusalem's Archaeological Storm". The Jewish Daily Forward. Retrieved May 2, 2011.
  12. ^ Omayma Abdel-Latif, "Revoking the death warrant" Archived May 17, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
  13. ^ "The UNESCO fiasco". Har-habayt.org. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
  14. ^ "Huge Stone". January 27, 2010.
  15. ^ Violent clashes at key Jerusalem mosque on 'day of anger', The Times, access-date=May 5, 2009
  16. ^ a b Mayor halts Temple Mount dig, BBC, access-date=May 5, 2009
  17. ^ a b c Romey, Kristin M. Jerusalem's Temple Mount Flap, Archaeology, Volume 53 Number 2, March/April 2000
  18. ^ Temple Mount destruction stirred archaeologist to action, February 8, 2005. Michael McCormack, Baptist Press "Temple Mount destruction stirred archaeologist to action". Baptist Press. Archived from the original on July 26, 2014. Retrieved February 6, 2016.
  19. ^ a b "Temple Mount relics saved from garbage," Etgar Lefkovits, The Jerusalem Post, April 14, 2005 [1] Archived March 26, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  20. ^ Esther Hecht, Battle of the Bulge
  21. ^ "Battle of the Bulge". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved March 14, 2011.[dead link‍]
  22. ^ "The Jerusalem Post". Fr.jpost.com. Retrieved March 14, 2011.[permanent dead link‍]
  23. ^ Shragai, Nadav (October 25, 2011). "The Mughrabi Bridge must be built". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved November 5, 2014.
  24. ^ Rosner, Shmuel (December 15, 2011). "No Water Under This Bridge". Latitude – The New York Times. Retrieved November 5, 2014.
  25. ^ "ISESCO denounces excavations under Al Aqsa Mosque". Arabicnews.com. February 17, 2004. Archived from the original on February 25, 2012. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
  26. ^ "Arabs Vandalize Judaism's Holiest Site". March 31, 2005.
  27. ^ Amim, Ir (February 8, 2007). "The Mughrabi Gate Crisis – Background and Analysis". Peacenow.org. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
  28. ^ Lis, Jonathan (December 2, 2007). "Majadele: Jerusalem mayor knew Mughrabi dig was illegal". Haaretz. Archived from the original on June 12, 2008. Retrieved July 1, 2008.
  29. ^ "Profile: Hamas PM Ismail Haniya". BBC News. December 14, 2006. Retrieved July 1, 2008.
  30. ^ Rabinovich, Abraham (February 8, 2007). "Palestinians unite to fight Temple Mount dig". The Australian. Archived from the original on January 16, 2009. Retrieved July 1, 2008.
  31. ^ "Kingdom condemns Israeli excavations around Al-Aqsa Mosque". www.saudiembassy.net. Archived from the original on October 30, 2007.
  32. ^ "Syria condemns Israeli excavations in east Jerusalem". News.xinhuanet.com. November 5, 2008. Archived from the original on November 2, 2012. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
  33. ^ Press Statement by the Honourable Dato' Seri Syed Hamid Albar, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Malaysia, February 9, 2007
  34. ^ "King strongly condemns Israeli actions". Jordanembassyus.org. February 11, 2007. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
  35. ^ "OIC Chief Raps Israel Over Al-Aqsa Excavations". Arabnews.com. February 22, 2007. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
  36. ^ Friedman, Matti (October 14, 2007). "Israel to resume dig near Temple Mount". USA Today. Retrieved July 1, 2008.
  37. ^ "Webcast for Jerusalem excavations". BBC News. February 15, 2007. Retrieved May 2, 2010.
  38. ^ UNESCO. "REPORT OF THE TECHNICAL MISSION TO THE OLD CITY OF JERUSALEM" (PDF). Retrieved October 1, 2013.
  39. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 14, 2012. Retrieved January 26, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  40. ^ "Turkey sending team to check Jerusalem excavations". Reuters. March 15, 2007.
  41. ^ a b Rapoport, Meron (July 7, 2007). "Waqf Temple Mount excavation raises archaeologists' protests". Haaretz. Archived from the original on October 15, 2007. Retrieved July 11, 2007.
  42. ^ a b c Teible, Amy (August 31, 2007). "Jerusalem Holy Site Dig Questioned". The Guardian. London. Retrieved September 7, 2007. [dead link‍]
  43. ^ El Deeb, Sarah (August 29, 2007). "Dig at Jerusalem Site Brings Ire". The Guardian. London. Retrieved September 7, 2007. [dead link‍]
  44. ^ a b Asser, Martin (August 28, 2007). "Israeli anger over holy site work". BBC News. Retrieved September 7, 2007.
  45. ^ "IPA: OU Condemns Waqf Excavations on Temple Mount". Orthodox Union. September 10, 2007. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
  46. ^ "Temple Mount dig causing concern". JTA. September 11, 2007. Archived from the original on May 10, 2012. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
  47. ^ a b Baruch et al. (2018). pp. 13-14.
  48. ^ a b c Michelina Di Cesare (2020). "The mosaic pavement beneath the floor of al-Aqṣā mosque: A case study of late antique artistic koiné". In Fabio Guidetti and Katharina Meinecke (ed.). A Globalised Visual Culture?. Oxbow. pp. 289–320.
  49. ^ Gabriel Barkay; Zachi Zweig (2009). "A Roman Period Centaur Relief from the Temple Mount". New Studies on Jerusalem. 15. Ramat-Gan: Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies, Bar-Ilan University: 213–217, 18*. Retrieved January 15, 2016. Between 1938 and 1942 R.W. Hamilton discovered a centaur relief under the floor of the Al-Aqsa mosque. The unpublished and defaced relief served as a paving slab in the mosque. The relief dates to the 3rd Century C.E. and probably belonged to the pagan temple of Jupiter Capitolinus that stood in that period upon the Temple Mount. This relief is the first Roman sculptured item discovered within the enclosure of the Temple Mount.
  50. ^ Shragai, Nadav (October 19, 2006). "Temple Mount dirt uncovers First Temple artifacts". Haaretz. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
  51. ^ The Subterranean Tunnel System beneath Christ Church near Jaffa Gate: Evidence of Guerilla Warfare and a Refugee Hideaway from the Time of Titus’ Siege of Jerusalem by Shimon Gibson and Rafael Y Lewis, 2019, article in New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and its Region, Collected Papers Volume XIII. pdf file of article.
  52. ^ "Temple Mount First Temple Period Discoveries". Friends of the Israel Antiquities Authority. Archived from the original on February 24, 2008. Retrieved October 5, 2009.
  53. ^ Milstein, Mati. Solomon's Temple Artifacts Found by Muslim Workers, National Geographic, October 23, 2007
[edit]
Electrical cable replacement (July 2007)
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