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Genetic and anthropology studies on Filipinos

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Various genetic and anthropology studies have been performed on Filipinos to analyze the population genetics of the various ethnic groups in the Philippines.

The results of a DNA study conducted by the National Geographic's "The Genographic Project", based on genetic testings of Filipino people by the National Geographic in 2008–2009, found that the Philippines is made up of around 53% Southeast Asia and Oceania, 36% East Asian, 5% Southern European, 3% South Asian and 2% Native American genes.[1]

Origins

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Chronological map of the Austronesian expansion[2]
Main article: Models of migration to the Philippines

The first Austronesians reached the Philippines at around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands and northern Luzon. From there, they rapidly spread downwards to the rest of the islands of the Philippines and Southeast Asia, as well as voyaging further east to reach the Northern Mariana Islands by around 1500 BC.[2][3][4] They assimilated the older Negrito groups which arrived during the Paleolithic, resulting in the modern Filipino ethnic groups which all display various ratios of genetic admixture between Austronesian and Negrito groups.[5]

A 2008 genetic study by Leeds University and published in Molecular Biology and Evolution, showed that mitochondrial DNA lineages have been evolving within Maritime Southeast Asia since modern humans arrived approximately 50,000 years ago. The authors concluded that it was proof that Austronesians evolved within Island Southeast Asia and did not come from Taiwan (the "Out-of-Sundaland" hypothesis). Population dispersals occurred at the same time as sea levels rose, which resulted in migrations from the Philippine Islands into Taiwan within the last 10,000 years.[6]

However, these have been repudiated by a 2014 study published by Nature using whole genome sequencing (instead of only mtDNA) which has found that all ISEA populations had genes originating from the aboriginal Taiwanese. Contrary to the claim of a south-to-north migration in the "Out-of-Sundaland" hypothesis, the new whole genome analysis strongly confirms the north-to-south dispersal of the Austronesian peoples in the prevailing "Out-of-Taiwan" hypothesis. The researchers further pointed out that while humans have been living in Sundaland for at least 40,000 years, the Austronesian people were recent arrivals. The results of the 2008 study failed to take into account admixture with the more ancient but unrelated Negrito and Papuan populations.[7][5]

A 2021 study states that the Philippines faced five migratory waves, with the first being led by Northern and Southern Negritos, who were distantly related to Australian and Papuan groups. The next wave was led by Manobo and Sama, who populated the southern Philippines. The Sama show high genetic affinities with Austroasiatic-speaking groups in Mainland Southeast Asia such as Mlabri and Htin and diverged from a common East Asian branch before Han, Dai, and Kinh split from Amis, Atayal, or Cordillerans. The latest wave was led by the Cordillerans, who settled in the Cordilleran mountain range of north-central Luzon. They mixed with the older Negrito populations although Southern Negritos received additional Papuan-related ancestry. However, central Cordillerans show no admixture with Negritos despite extensive interaction with their neighbors. The study also found evidence of Northeast Asian ancestry, originating from the coastal China/Taiwan area, being dispersed into the Batanes Islands and coastal regions of Luzon. Overall, all Filipino ethnic groups share more alleles with Cordillerans than with Austronesians like Ami or Atayal, who display some admixture with Austroasiatic-related and Northeast Asian-related groups.[8]

In addition, there is evidence of low-lying European ancestry in individuals from Bolinao, Cebuano, Ibaloi, Itabayaten, Ilocano, Ivatan, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, and Yogad groups, dating back to the Spanish colonial period. Nonetheless, Filipino demography remains relatively unaffected by Spanish colonialism compared to other colonies.[8]

Y-DNA haplogroups

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Distribution of Y haplogroup O lineages in East Asia

The most frequently occurring Y-DNA haplogroups among modern Filipinos are haplogroup O1a-M119, which has been found with maximal frequency among the indigenous peoples of Nias, the Mentawai Islands, northern Luzon, the Batanes, and Taiwan, and Haplogroup O2-M122, which is found with high frequency in many populations of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Polynesia.

In particular, the type of O2-M122 that is found frequently among Filipinos in general, O-P164(xM134), is also found frequently in other Austronesian populations, including Polynesians.[9][10][11] Trejaut et al. 2014 found O2a2b-P164(xO2a2b1-M134) in 26/146 = 17.8% of a pool of samples of Filipinos (4/8 = 50% Mindanao, 7/31 = 22.6% Visayas, 10/55 = 18.2% South Luzon, 1/6 = 17% North Luzon, 2/22 = 9.1% unknown Philippines, 2/24 = 8.3% Ivatan).

The distributions of other subclades of O2-M122 in the Philippines were sporadic, but it may be noted that O2a1b-JST002611 was observed in 6/24 = 25% of a sample of Ivatan and 1/31 = 3.2% of a sample from the Visayas, O2a2a1a2-M7 was observed in 1/6 = 17% of a sample from North Luzon, 1/55 = 1.8% of a sample from South Luzon, and 1/31 = 3.2% of a sample from the Visayas, and O2a2b1a1a-M133 was observed in 2/31 = 6.5% of a sample from the Visayas.[10] A total of 45/146 = 30.8% of the sampled Filipinos were found to belong to Haplogroup O2-M122.[10]

In a study by Delfin et al. (2011), 21.1% (8/38) of a sample of highlanders of northern Luzon (17 Bugkalot, 12 Kalanguya, 6 Kankanaey, 2 Ibaloi, and 1 Ifugao) were found to belong to haplogroup O2a2a1a2-M7, which is outside of the O2a2b-P164 clade and is uncommon among Austronesian-speaking populations, being rather frequently observed among speakers of Hmong-Mien, Katuic, and Bahnaric languages in southwestern China and eastern Mainland Southeast Asia. [12] (Delfin et al. also observed O-M7 in 5/39 = 12.8% of a sample of Agta from Iriga in southeastern Luzon and 5/36 = 13.9% of a sample of Ati from Panay.[12])

Haplogroup O1a-M119 is also commonly found among Filipinos (25/146 = 17.1% O1a-M119(xO1a1a-P203, O1a2-M50), 20/146 = 13.7% O1a1a-P203, 17/146 = 11.6% O1a2-M50, 62/146 = 42.5% O1a-M119 total according to Trejaut et al. 2014) and is shared with other Austronesian-speaking populations, especially those in Taiwan, western Indonesia, and Madagascar.[13]

Haplogroups R-M343 and I-M253

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The most common Y-DNA Haplogroup type is O, which Filipinos share with Chinese and fellow Southeast Asians. The South Asian Y-DNA H1a indicate the presence of Indians while the 13% frequency of European Y-DNA R1b is evidence of Spanish immigration.[14][15][16]

After the 16th century, the colonial period saw the influx of genetic influence from other populations. This is evidenced by the presence of a small percentage of the Y-DNA Haplogroup R1b (R-M343) present among the population of the Philippines. DNA studies vary as to how small these lineages are. A year 2001 study conducted by Stanford University Asia-Pacific Research Center stated that only 3.6% of the Philippine population had European Y-DNA. This however is contrasted by genetic studies done by Applied Biosystems and FamilyTreeDNA, wherein the R1b Y-DNA Haplotype common in Spain and Western Europe was also detected among 12-13% of the sample size of Filipinos, which had come to the area, via immigration from Spain and Latin America, as well as haplogroup I1 which came from Germanic Europeans and had spread to the Philippines mostly from Anglo-America (USA) and consisting to about 0.95% of the sample size. Also included is haplogroup H1a, that came from South Asian sources.[14][15][16]

According to another genetic study done by the Kaiser Permanente (KP) Research Program on Genes, Environment, and Health (RPGEH), substantial number of Californian residents self-identifying as Filipinos sampled have "modest" amounts of European ancestry consistent with older admixture.[17] Therefore implying that the mostly native majority population of the Philippines, still posses Spanish admixture in their genetics in minor percentages per person.[17]

The analysis of the full autosomal genome of 1,082 individuals from the Philippines has shown that "in contrast to several other Spanish-colonized regions, Philippine demography appears to have remained largely unaffected by admixture with Europeans" (Larena et al. 2021). European admixture is found at a low level among individuals from lowland groups such as Ilocanos and Cebuanos, and reaches significant population-wide levels among urbanized lowlanders (who form half the population of the country),[18] Bicolanos and Chavacano-speaking Mestizos.[19]

Haplogroup Q-M242

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One study found that the Y-DNA of 2 out of 64 sampled Filipino males belonged to Haplogroup Q-M242 (which has its highest frequency among Native Americans, Asian Siberians, and in Central Asians).[20] Coincidentally, it is in a similar percentage to the previously mentioned National Geographic study, which stated that 2% of the population is Native American.[1]

Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups

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From India

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The Indian Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups, M52'58 and M52a are also present in the Philippines suggesting that there was Indian migration to the archipelago starting from the 5th Century AD.[21]

The integration of Southeast Asia into Indian Ocean trading networks around 2,000 years ago also shows some impact, with South Asian genetic signals that are present in the Indonesian archipelago also extending into the Philippines among the Sama-Bajau communities.[19]

A recent genetic study found 10-20% of Cebuano ancestry is attributable to South Asian (Indian) descent,[22] dated to a time when Precolonial Cebu practiced Hinduism.[23]

Anthropology

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Craniometry

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A Craniometric Racial Graph of Filipinos (using Historical samples and Modern samples) by Matthew C. Go. Structure map showing estimated ancestry proportions for the historical (H) and modern (M) Filipino populations when shown using the posterior group membership probability for reference pools that are Hispanic, Asian, European, and African. Every person is symbolized by a single vertical line divided into four segments of varying colors, each of which represents the estimated ancestry elements. The posterior probability value is the length of the colored section. The people are arranged in decreasing order according to their amount of estimated Asian heritage.

Scientist, Matthew C. Go, in a Trihybrid Ancestry Variation Analysis approach to Admixture in Filipinos, published a study wherein it was discovered that upon exhuming the remains around the public cemetery of the "Manila North Cemetery" as well as other public cemeteries across the Philippines, and practicing forensic anthropology on them, Matthew C. Go estimated that 71% of the mean amount, among the samples exhumed, have attribution to Asian descent while 7% is attributable to European descent.[24] Filipinos have significantly less Asian ancestry compared to other Asian nationalities like the Koreans who are 90% Asian, Japanese at 96%, Thai at 93%, and Vietnamese at 84%.[24]

Nevertheless, a 2019 Anthropology Study by Beatrix Dudzik and also Matthew Go, while using skeletons collated by the University of the Philippines and sampled from all across the Philippines, thus published in the Journal of Human Biology, using physical anthropology, estimated that, 72.7% of Filipinos are Asian, 12.7% of Filipinos can be classified as Hispanic, 7.3% as Indigenous American, African at 4.5% and European at 2.7%.[25] However, this is only according to an interpretation of the data wherein the reference groups, which were attributed to the Filipino samples; for the Hispanic category, were Mexican-Americans, and the reference groups for the European, African, and Indigenous American, categories, were: White Americans, Black Americans, and Native Americans from the USA, while the Asian reference groups were sourced from Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese origins.[25]

In contrast, a different anthropology study using Morphoscopic ancestry estimates in Filipino crania using multivariate probit regression models by J. T. Hefner and also Matthew C. Go, published on year 2020, while analyzing Historic and Modern samples of skeletons in the Philippines, paint a different picture,[26] in that, when the reference group for "Asian" was Thailand (Southeast Asians) rather than Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese; and the reference group for "Hispanic" were Colombians (South Americans) rather than Mexicans,[26] the combined historical and modern sample results for Filipinos, yielded the following ratios: Asian at 48.6%, African at 32.9%, and only a small portion classifying as either European at 12.9%, and finally for Hispanic at 5.7%.[26]

In 2017, a Japanese scientist, Nandar Yukyi,[27] using a Multivariate Analysis of Craniometric Variation Of Modern Asian And Hispanic Individuals; as her graduate Thesis,[27] found that Mexican and Filipino skeletal samples taken from prisons at Mexico and the Philippines, cluster together, when it comes to physical dimensions, and that there were several instances wherein Filipinos and Mexicans were misclassified into each other's racial categories, and the same happened to Ainu Japanese skeletal samples.[27]

Population Data

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Main article: Demographics of the Philippines

As for the general population of the Philippines, there are several data points elucidating that the Philippine population is racially diverse.

Mexican Filipinos

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Main article: Mexican settlement in the Philippines

Of the Mexican ancestry in Filipinos, there are records to distill their general number, according to Stephanie Mawson in her M.Phil thesis entitled Between Loyalty and Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish Domination in the Seventeenth Century Pacific, in the 1600s there were thousands of Latin American settlers sent to the Philippines by the Spaniards per year and around that time frame the Spaniards had cumulatively sent 15,600 settlers from Peru and Mexico[28] while there were only 600 Spaniards from Spain,[29] that supplemented a Philippine population of only 667,612 people.[30] Due to the initial low population count, people of Latin American and Hispanic descent quickly spread across the territory.[31] Several hundred Tlaxcalan soldiers sailed to the islands in the 16th century, with some settling permanently and contributing numerous Nahuatl words to the Filipino languages.[32] It was royal policy to use Peruvian and Mexican soldiers as colonists to the Philippines.[33]

Geographic distribution and year of settlement of the Latin-American immigrant soldiers assigned to the Philippines in the 1600s.[34]
Location 1603 1636 1642 1644 1654 1655 1670 1672
Manila[34] 900 446 — 407 821 799 708 667
Fort Santiago[34] — 22 — — 50 — 86 81
Cavite[34] — 70 — — 89 — 225 211
Cagayan[34] 46 80 — — — — 155 155
Calamianes[34] — — — — — — 73 73
Caraga[34] — 45 — — — — 81 81
Cebu[34] 86 50 — — — — 135 135
Formosa[34] — 180 — — — — — —
Moluccas[34] 80 480 507 — 389 — — —
Otón[34] 66 50 — — — — 169 169
Zamboanga[34] — 210 — — 184 — — —
Other[34] 255 — — — — — — —
[34] — — — — — — — —
Total Reinforcements[34] 1,533 1,633 2,067 2,085 n/a n/a 1,632 1,572

The book Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 by Paula C. Park cites "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)" gave a higher number of later Mexican soldier-immigrants to the Philippines, pegging the number at 35,000 immigrants in the 1700s,[35] in a Philippine population which was only around 1.5 Million,[36] thus forming 2.33% of the population.[37]

Spanish Filipinos

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Main article: Spanish Filipinos

In 1799, Friar Manuel Buzeta estimated the population of all the Philippine islands as 1,502,574.[38] Despite the number of Mixed Spanish-Filipino descent being the lowest, they may be more common than expected as many Spaniards often had Filipino concubines and mistresses and they frequently produced children out of wedlock.[39]: 272 

In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas"[40][41] compiled a census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (Which represented an average family of seven to ten children[42] and two parents, per tribute)[43] and came upon the following statistics:

Data reported for the 1800 as divided by ethnicity and province[40][41]
Province Native Tributes Spanish Mestizo Tributes All Tributes[a]
Tondo[40]: 539  14,437-1/2 3,528 27,897-7
Cavite[40]: 539  5,724-1/2 859 9,132-4
Laguna[40]: 539  14,392-1/2 336 19,448-6
Batangas[40]: 539  15,014 451 21,579-7
Mindoro[40]: 539  3,165 3-1/2 4,000-8
Bulacan[40]: 539  16,586-1/2 2,007 25,760-5
Pampanga[40]: 539  16,604-1/2 2,641 27,358-1
Bataan[40]: 539  3,082 619 5,433
Zambales[40]: 539  1,136 73 4,389
Ilocos[41]: 31  44,852-1/2 631 68,856
Pangasinan[41]: 31  19,836 719-1/2 25,366
Cagayan[41]: 31  9,888 0 11,244-6
Camarines[41]: 54  19,686-1/2 154-1/2 24,994
Albay[41]: 54  12,339 146 16,093
Tayabas[41]: 54  7,396 12 9,228
Cebu[41]: 113  28,112-1/2 625 28,863
Samar[41]: 113  3,042 103 4,060
Leyte[41]: 113  7,678 37-1/2 10,011
Caraga[41]: 113  3,497 0 4,977
Misamis[41]: 113  1,278 0 1,674
Negros Island[41]: 113  5,741 0 7,176
Iloilo[41]: 113  29,723 166 37,760
Capiz[41]: 113  11,459 89 14,867
Antique[41]: 113  9,228 0 11,620
Calamianes[41]: 113  2,289 0 3,161
TOTAL 299,049 13,201 424,992-16

The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province [40]: 539  (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%,[40]: 539  Cavite at 13%,[40]: 539  Laguna 2.28%,[40]: 539  Batangas 3%,[40]: 539  Bulacan 10.79%,[40]: 539  Bataan 16.72%,[40]: 539  Ilocos 1.38%,[41]: 31  Pangasinan 3.49%,[41]: 31  Albay 1.16%,[41]: 54  Cebu 2.17%,[41]: 113  Samar 3.27%,[41]: 113  Iloilo 1%,[41]: 113  Capiz 1%,[41]: 113  Bicol 20%,[44] and Zamboanga 40%.[44] According to the data, in the Archdiocese of Manila which administers much of Luzon under it, about 10% of the population was Spanish-Filipino.[40]: 539  Summing up all the provinces including those with no Spanish Filipinos, all in all, in the total population of the Philippines, Spanish Filipinos and mixed Spanish-Filipinos composed 5% of the population.[40][41]

Chinese Filipinos

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Main article: Chinese Filipinos

Meanwhile, government records show that 20% of the Philippines' total population were either pure Chinese or Mixed Chinese-Filipinos[45][46]

In the 1860s to 1890s, in the urban areas of the Philippines, especially at Manila, according to burial statistics, as much as 3.3% of the population were pure European Spaniards and the pure Chinese were as high as 9.9%.[47] The Spanish-Filipino and Chinese-Filipino mestizo populations may have fluctuated. Eventually, everybody belonging to these non-native categories diminished because they were assimilated into and chose to self-identify as pure Filipinos.[47]: 82  Since during the Philippine Revolution, the term "Filipino" included anybody born in the Philippines coming from any race.[48][49] That would explain the abrupt drop of otherwise high Chinese, Spanish and mestizo percentages across the country by the time of the first American census in 1903.[47]

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Genographic Project - Reference Populations – Geno 2.0 Next Generation". National Geographic. April 13, 2005. Archived from the original on May 22, 2019.
  2. ^ a b Chambers, Geoff (2013). "Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians". eLS. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2. ISBN 978-0470016176.
  3. ^ Mijares, Armand Salvador B. (2006). "The Early Austronesian Migration To Luzon: Perspectives From The Peñablanca Cave Sites". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association (26): 72–78. Archived from the original on July 7, 2014.
  4. ^ Bellwood, Peter (2014). The Global Prehistory of Human Migration. p. 213.
  5. ^ a b Lipson, Mark; Loh, Po-Ru; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya; Ko, Ying-Chin; Stoneking, Mark; Berger, Bonnie; Reich, David (2014). "Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia" (PDF). Nature Communications. 5 (1): 4689. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.4689L. doi:10.1038/ncomms5689. PMC 4143916. PMID 25137359. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-06-29. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
  6. ^ Martin Richards. "Climate Change and Postglacial Human Dispersals in Southeast Asia". Oxford Journals. Archived from the original on October 8, 2012. Retrieved April 10, 2014.
  7. ^ Rochmyaningsih, Dyna (28 October 2014). "'Out of Sundaland' Assumption Disproved". Jakarta Globe. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 24 December 2018.
  8. ^ a b Larena, Maximilian; Sanchez-Quinto, Federico; Sjödin, Per; McKenna, James; Ebeo, Carlo; Reyes, Rebecca; Casel, Ophelia; Huang, Jin-Yuan; Hagada, Kim Pullupul; Guilay, Dennis; Reyes, Jennelyn (2021-03-30). "Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 118 (13): e2026132118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11826132L. doi:10.1073/pnas.2026132118. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 8020671. PMID 33753512.
  9. ^ Sheyla Mirabal, Kristian J. Herrera, Tenzin Gayden, Maria Regueiro, Peter A. Underhill, Ralph L. Garcia-Bertrand, and Rene J. Herrera, "Increased Y-chromosome resolution of haplogroup O suggests genetic ties between the Ami aborigines of Taiwan and the Polynesian Islands of Samoa and Tonga." Gene 492 (2012) 339–348. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2011.10.042
  10. ^ a b c Trejaut, Jean A; Poloni, Estella S; Yen, Ju-Chen; Lai, Ying-Hui; Loo, Jun-Hun; Lee, Chien-Liang; He, Chun-Lin; Lin, Marie (2014). "Taiwan Y-chromosomal DNA variation and its relationship with Island Southeast Asia". BMC Genetics. 15: 77. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-15-77. PMC 4083334. PMID 24965575.
  11. ^ Karafet, Tatiana M.; Hallmark, Brian; Cox, Murray P.; et al. (2010). "Major East–West Division Underlies Y Chromosome Stratification across Indonesia". Mol. Biol. Evol. 27 (8): 1833–1844. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq063. PMID 20207712.
  12. ^ a b Delfin, Frederick; Salvador, Jazelyn M.; Calacal, Gayvelline C.; Perdigon, Henry B.; Tabbada, Kristina A.; Villamor, Lilian P.; Halos, Saturnina C.; Gunnarsdóttir, Ellen; Myles, Sean; Hughes, David A.; Xu, Shuhua; Jin, Li; Lao, Oscar; Kayser, Manfred; Hurles, Matthew E.; Stoneking, Mark; De Ungria, Maria Corazon A. (February 2011). "The Y-chromosome landscape of the Philippines: extensive heterogeneity and varying genetic affinities of Negrito and non-Negrito groups". European Journal of Human Genetics. 19 (2): 224–230. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2010.162. PMC 3025791. PMID 20877414.
  13. ^ Chang JG, Ko YC, Lee JC, Chang SJ, Liu TC, Shih MC, Peng CT (2002). "Molecular analysis of mutations and polymorphisms of the Lewis secretor type alpha(1,2)-fucosyltransferase gene reveals that Taiwanese aborigines are of Austronesian derivation". J. Hum. Genet. 47 (2): 60–5. doi:10.1007/s100380200001. PMID 11916003.
  14. ^ a b "With a sample population of 105 Filipinos, the company of Applied Biosystems, analysed the Y-DNA of average Filipinos and it is discovered that about 0.95% of the samples have the Y-DNA Haplotype "H1a", which is most common in South Asia and had spread to the Philippines via precolonial Indian missionaries who spread Hinduism and established Indic Rajahnates like Cebu and Butuan. The 13% frequeny of R1b also indicate Spanish admixture". Archived from the original on 2017-05-25. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
  15. ^ a b "Manual Collation". Archived from the original on 2022-10-26. Retrieved 2022-10-26.
  16. ^ a b Philippines DNA Project Archived 2023-02-04 at the Wayback Machine - Y-DNA Classic Chart
  17. ^ a b Yambazi Banda (2015). "Characterizing Race/Ethnicity and Genetic Ancestry for 100,000 Subjects in the Genetic Epidemiology Research on Adult Health and Aging (GERA) Cohort". Genetics. 200 (4): 1285–1295. doi:10.1534/genetics.115.178616. PMC 4574246. PMID 26092716. Subsection: (Discussion) "For the non-Hispanic white individuals, we see a broad spectrum of genetic ancestry ranging from northern Europe to southern Europe and the Middle East. Within that large group, with the exception of Ashkenazi Jews, we see little evidence of distinct clusters. This is consistent with considerable exogamy within this group. By comparison, we do see structure in the East Asian population, correlated with nationality, reflecting continuing endogamy for these nationalities and also recent immigration. On the other hand, we did observe a substantial number of individuals who are admixed between East Asian and European ancestry, reflecting ~10% of all those reporting East Asian race/ethnicity. The majority of these reflected individuals with one East Asian and one European parent or one East Asian and three European grandparents. In addition, we noted that for self-reported Filipinos, a substantial proportion have modest levels of European genetic ancestry reflecting older admixture."
  18. ^ "Urban Population of the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing)". Philippine Statistics Authority. 5 July 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  19. ^ a b Larena, Maximilian; Sanchez-Quinto, Federico; Sjödin, Per; McKenna, James; Ebeo, Carlo; Reyes, Rebecca; Casel, Ophelia; Huang, Jin-Yuan; Hagada, Kim Pullupul; Guilay, Dennis; Reyes, Jennelyn (2021-03-30). "Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (13): e2026132118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11826132L. doi:10.1073/pnas.2026132118. PMC 8020671. PMID 33753512.
  20. ^ Kim, Soon-Hee; et al. (2011). "High frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroup O2b-SRY465 lineages in Korea: a genetic perspective on the peopling of Korea". Investigative Genetics. 2 (1): 10. doi:10.1186/2041-2223-2-10. PMC 3087676. PMID 21463511.
  21. ^ Delfin, Frederick; Ko, Albert Min-Shan; Li, Mingkun; Gunnarsdóttir, Ellen D.; Tabbada, Kristina A.; Salvador, Jazelyn M.; Calacal, Gayvelline C.; Sagum, Minerva S.; Datar, Francisco A.; Padilla, Sabino G.; De Ungria, Maria Corazon A.; Stoneking, Mark (February 2014). "Complete mtDNA genomes of Filipino ethnolinguistic groups: a melting pot of recent and ancient lineages in the Asia-Pacific regio". European Journal of Human Genetics. 22 (2): 228–237. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2013.122. PMC 3895641. PMID 23756438. Indian influence and possibly haplogroups M52'58 and M52a were brought to the Philippines as early as the fifth century AD. However, Indian influence through these trade empires were indirect and mainly commercial; moreover, other Southeast Asian groups served as filters that diluted and/or enriched any Indian influence that reached the Philippines
  22. ^ Delfin, F., Min-Shan Ko, A., Li, M., Gunnarsdóttir, E. D., Tabbada, K. A., Salvador, J. M., Calacal, G. C., Sagum, M. S., Datar, F. A., Padilla, S. G., De Ungria, M. C. A., & Stoneking, M. (2014). Complete mtDNA genomes of Filipino ethnolinguistic groups: a melting pot of recent and ancient lineages in the Asia-Pacific region. European Journal of Human Genetics, 22(2), 228–237.
  23. ^ Kuizon, Jose G. (1962). The Sanskrit loan-words in Cebuano-Bisayan language and the Indian elements to Cebuano-Bisayan culture (Thesis). University of San Carlos, Cebu. OCLC 3061923.
  24. ^ a b Go, Matthew C. (January 15, 2018). "An Admixture Approach to Trihybrid Ancestry Variation in the Philippines with Implications for Forensic Anthropology". Human Biology. 232 (3): 178. doi:10.13110/humanbiology.90.3.01. PMID 33947174. Retrieved September 11, 2020. Filipinos appear considerably admixed with respect to the other Asian population samples, carrying on average less Asian ancestry (71%) than our Korean (99%), Japanese (96%), Thai (93%), and Vietnamese (84%) reference samples. We also revealed substructure in our Filipino sample, showing that the patterns of ancestry vary within the Philippines—that is, between the four differently sourced Filipino samples. Mean estimates of Asian (76%) and European (7%) ancestry are greatest for the cemetery sample of forensic significance from Manila.
  25. ^ a b An Inter-University Study published in the Journal of Forensic Anthropology concluded that the bodies curated by the University of the Philippines, representing the country, showed the percentage of the population that's phenotypically classified as Hispanic is 12.7%, while that of Indigenous American is 7.3%. Thus totaling to 20% of the sample representative of the Philippines, are Latino in physical appearance. Dudzik, Beatrix; Go, Matthew C. (2019-01-01). "Classification Trends Among Modern Filipino Crania Using Fordisc 3.1". Human Biology. 2 (4). University of Florida Press: 1–11. doi:10.5744/fa.2019.1005. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021. Retrieved September 13, 2020. [Page 1] ABSTRACT: Filipinos represent a significant contemporary demographic group globally, yet they are underrepresented in the forensic anthropological literature. Given the complex population history of the Philippines, it is important to ensure that traditional methods for assessing the biological profile are appropriate when applied to these peoples. Here we analyze the classification trends of a modern Filipino sample (n = 110) when using the Fordisc 3.1 (FD3) software. We hypothesize that Filipinos represent an admixed population drawn largely from Asian and marginally from European parental gene pools, such that FD3 will classify these individuals morphometrically into reference samples that reflect a range of European admixture, in quantities from small to large. Our results show the greatest classification into Asian reference groups (72.7%), followed by Hispanic (12.7%), Indigenous American (7.3%), African (4.5%), and European (2.7%) groups included in FD3. This general pattern did not change between males and females. Moreover, replacing the raw craniometric values with their shape variables did not significantly alter the trends already observed. These classification trends for Filipino crania provide useful information for casework interpretation in forensic laboratory practice. Our findings can help biological anthropologists to better understand the evolutionary, population historical, and statistical reasons for FD3-generated classifications. The results of our studyindicate that ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology would benefit from population-focused research that gives consideration to histories of colonialism and periods of admixture.
  26. ^ a b c Go, Matthew C.; Hefner, Joseph T. (14 January 2020). "Morphoscopic ancestry estimates in Filipino crania using multivariate probit regression models". American Journal of Biological Anthropology. 172 (3). doi:10.1002/ajpa.24008.
  27. ^ a b c Yukyi, Nandar (2017-08-02). Craniometric Variation of Modern Asian and Hispanic Individuals Using Multivariate Analysis (Thesis).
  28. ^ Stephanie Mawson, ‘Between Loyalty and Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish Domination in the Seventeenth Century Pacific’ (Univ. of Sydney M.Phil. thesis, 2014), appendix 3.
  29. ^ Spanish Settlers in the Philippines (1571–1599) By Antonio Garcia-Abasalo
  30. ^ The Unlucky Country: The Republic of the Philippines in the 21st Century By Duncan Alexander McKenzie (page xii)
  31. ^ "Filipino-Mexican-Central-and-South American Connection, Tales of Two Sisters: Manila and Mexico". June 21, 1997. Retrieved August 18, 2020. Tomás de Comyn, general manager of the Compañia Real de Filipinas, in 1810 estimated that out of a total population of 2,515,406, "the European Spaniards, and Spanish creoles and mestizos do not exceed 4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages, and the distinct castes or modifications known in America under the name of mulatto, quarteroons, etc., although found in the Philippine Islands, are generally confounded in the three classes of pure Indians, Chinese mestizos and Chinese." In other words, the Mexicans who had arrived in the previous century had so intermingled with the local population that distinctions of origin had been forgotten by the 19th century. The Mexicans who came with Legázpi and aboard succeeding vessels had blended with the local residents so well that their country of origin had been erased from memory.
  32. ^ "When Tlaxcalan Natives Went to War in the Philippines". LATINO BOOK REVIEW. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
  33. ^ "Orden de enviar hombres a Filipinas desde México" (Consejo de Indias España)(English Translation from Spanish original: "Royal Decree to the Count of Coruña, Viceroy of New Spain, informing him that, according to information from Captain Gabriel de Rivera who came from the Philippines, on a journey made by Governor Gonzalo Ronquillo to the Cagayan River some Spaniards were lost, and that to make up for this lack and populate these islands it was necessary to take up to two hundred men to them. The viceroy is ordered to attend to this request and send them from New Spain, in addition to another two hundred that were entrusted to him from Lisbon."
  34. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific By Stephanie J. Mawson AGI, México, leg. 25, núm. 62; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 8, ramo 3, núm. 50; leg. 10, ramo 1, núm. 6; leg. 22, ramo 1, núm. 1, fos. 408 r –428 v; núm. 21; leg. 32, núm. 30; leg. 285, núm. 1, fos. 30 r –41 v .
  35. ^ Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 by Paula C. Park page 100
  36. ^ "The Unlucky Country The Republic of the Philippines in the 21st Century" By Duncan Alexander McKenzie (2012)(page xii)
  37. ^ Garcia, María Fernanda (1998). "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)". Bolotin Archivo General de la Nación. 4 (11).
  38. ^ "The Unlucky Country The Republic of the Philippines in the 21st Century" By Duncan Alexander McKenzie (2012)(page xii)
  39. ^ Doran, Christine (1993). "Spanish and Mestizo Women of Manila". Philippine Studies. 41 (3). Ateneo de Manila University Press: 269–286. ISSN 0031-7837. JSTOR 42633385.
  40. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t "ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO PRIMERO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
  41. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO SEGUNDO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish)
  42. ^ "How big were families in the 1700s?" By Keri Rutherford
  43. ^ Newson, Linda A. (April 16, 2009). Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-6197-1. Archived from the original on March 8, 2023. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
  44. ^ a b Maximilian Larena (January 21, 2021). "Supplementary Information for Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years (Appendix, Page 35)" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. p. 35. Retrieved March 23, 2021.
  45. ^ Guanqun, Wang (August 23, 2009). "Chinese lunar new year might become national holiday in Philippines too". Xinhua. Archived from the original on August 26, 2009. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
  46. ^ Macrohon, Pilar (January 21, 2013). "Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday" (Press release). PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines. Archived from the original on May 16, 2021.
  47. ^ a b c Doeppers, Daniel F. (1994). "Tracing the Decline of the Mestizo Categories in Philippine Life in the Late 19th Century". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 22 (2): 80–89. ISSN 0115-0243. JSTOR 29792149. Archived from the original on September 14, 2021. Retrieved July 22, 2021.
  48. ^ Hedman, Eva-Lotta; Sidel, John (2005). Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-134-75421-2. Archived from the original on February 18, 2023. Retrieved July 30, 2020.
  49. ^ Steinberg, David Joel (2018). "Chapter – 3 A SINGULAR AND A PLURAL FOLK". THE PHILIPPINES A Singular and a Plural Place. Routledge. p. 47. doi:10.4324/9780429494383. ISBN 978-0-8133-3755-5. Archived from the original on February 18, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2021. The cultural identity of the mestizos was challenged as they became increasingly aware that they were true members of neither the indio nor the Chinese community. Increasingly powerful but adrift, they linked with the Spanish mestizos, who were also being challenged because after the Latin American revolutions broke the Spanish Empire, many of the settlers from the New World, Caucasian creoles born in Mexico or Peru, became suspect in the eyes of the Iberian Spanish. The Spanish Empire had lost its universality.
  1. ^ Including others such as Latin-Americans and Chinese-Mestizos, pure Chinese paid tribute but were not Philippine citizens as they were transients who returned to China, and Spaniards were exempt
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