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Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe

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Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe is defined by many small scale successful programs but also by a general lack of improved water and sanitation systems for the majority of Zimbabwe. Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe faces significant challenges, marked by both successful localized efforts and widespread deficiencies in infrastructure. According to the 2019 Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), conducted by UNICEF, disparities persist in access to clean drinking water and sanitation facilities. While overall access to improved drinking water sources increased to 77.1% in 2019 from 76.1% in 2014, significant gaps remain between urban and rural areas, as well as within urban centers. For instance, 97.3% of urban households have access to improved water sources compared to only 67.9% of rural households. Similarly, disparities exist across regions, with Harare boasting the highest access at 96.6%, contrasting sharply with 64.8% in Matabeleland South. Additionally, approximately 67.8% of households have access to improved, non-shared sanitation facilities, indicating ongoing challenges in this domain. Urban areas, in particular, grapple with chronic water shortages amid rising consumption demands.[1] There are many factors which continue to determine the nature, for the foreseeable future, of water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe. Three major factors are the severely depressed state of the Zimbabwean economy, the willingness of foreign aid organizations to build and finance infrastructure projects, and the political stability of the Zimbabwean state.[2][3]

History

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Upon gaining independence in 1980, Zimbabwe inherited an undeveloped rural water supply and sanitation infrastructure system, but a better functioning urban water supply and sanitation network.[2][3] Conditions throughout the 1980s and the early 1990s were highly advantageous to Zimbabwe's water and sanitation sectors due to the massive support from the incoming elected majority government as well as an influx of foreign investment. This support manifested itself in the highly ambitious Integrated Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme (IRWSSP) in 1985. The IRWSSP attempted to provide improved water and sanitation facilities to all rural Zimbabweans by 2005.[4] Although IRWSSP did not achieve this goal, it was still greatly beneficial as Zimbabwe experienced, according to the African Development Bank, "one of the highest rates of growth in water supply and sanitation services"[5] between the years 1980 to 2000.

After the turn of the millennium, however, Zimbabwe's economy has gone through a period of steep decline and many foreign investors have departed.[6] This is partly due to political reforms, especially those of land reform, enacted by the government of President Robert Mugabe.[7] In addition, Zimbabwe's population has been steadily growing since the 1980s, and as a result there is a pressing need for updating and expanding aging water and sanitation infrastructure throughout Zimbabwe.[3] The deteriorating water supply and sanitation sectors caught up with Zimbabwe in 2008 and 2009, as Zimbabwe experienced a massive cholera outbreak (Zimbabwean cholera outbreak), during which almost 100,000 were infected and over 4,000 died.[2][8]

More recently, Zimbabwe joined the Sanitation and Water for All (SWA) partnership in 2013,[9] which addresses SDG 6 (clean sanitation and drinking water)[10] to provide access to basic drinking water, basic sanitation services, and basic hygiene. This has been especially helpful during the recovery from COVID-19 in addressing more dramatic shortages of these necessities.[11] Access to drinking water is essential in national, social, and economic development, especially in a country like Zimbabwe that struggles as a developing country.[12]

Current issues

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According to UNICEF, over 60% of the rural water supply infrastructure in Zimbabwe is in a state of disrepair,[13] and as a result, many boreholes and wells contain non potable water and are in need of decontamination. Even in urban centers, piped water supply is very sporadic and sometimes unclean. This is partly due to poor sanitation and refuse systems resulting in many sewers which are often highly polluted.[3] There is also a pressing inadequacy in the number of public and private latrines.[4] An additional problem that comes with the need to update and expand an aging and contaminated water supply and sanitation network (well, boreholes, piped water, latrines, etc.) is the need to educate all members of the Zimbabwean public on available opportunities for improving personal access to improved water supply and sanitation. During the cholera outbreak of 2008-2009 information from the Zimbabwean government about the safety of available water supplies people was particularly unclear.[3] One method that has proved effective at improving the sanitation practices of the public are community health clubs, which have also proved to be cost effective and highly popular.[4]

Zimbabwe has since been consistently participating in SWA meetings and surrounding decision making, which has resulted in enhanced understanding of the partnership and its framework at a country level, thus emphasizing the country’s willingness and political determination to improve their levels of water access on a developmental scale.[9] Some of Zimbabwe’s commitments through SWA include, but are not limited to, 1) “develop, launch and roll-out a national Strategy to reduce open defecation to 21.7% to 9% by 2025, 2) fully fund the building of efficient regulatory institutions, devolved delivery and coordination capacity by 2022, and 3) achieve 80% access to potable water by 2025.”[9]

UNICEF Zimbabwe's Annual Report from 2023 highlighted large scale programs to benefit the most vulnerable women and children in the country, including in regards to clean and safe water.[14] They are working with the Government, donors, development partners, Civil Society Organizations, other UN Agencies and guided by the United Nations Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework (UNSDCF),[14] and are strengthening these connections, in order to help these at-risk women and children in Zimbabwe.

Sector overview

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Geography

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Zimbabwe is a landlocked country and therefore its major water supplies are lakes, rivers, and aquifers. The two major rivers in Zimbabwe are the Zambezi River in the north, and the Limpopo River in the south. Several other rivers with significant watershed areas that flow through Zimbabwe are the Save, Manyame, and Sanyati Rivers. The biggest lake in Zimbabwe is Lake Kariba which is on the border with Zambia.[6] There are several large aquifers in Zimbabwe.

Weather

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Zimbabwe's climate is characterized by distinct seasonal patterns. The rainy season occurs from October to March, coinciding with high temperatures, while from June to August, precipitation decreases, accompanied by cooler temperatures. These fluctuations in precipitation are influenced by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), a climate phenomenon characterized by periodic warming (El Niño) and cooling (La Niña) of the equatorial Pacific Ocean. The variability in precipitation, particularly during the rainy season, directly impacts the country's water supply. During El Niño events, Zimbabwe typically experiences below-average rainfall, leading to drought conditions and water scarcity. Conversely, La Niña events often bring above-average rainfall, replenishing water sources and supporting water supply systems.[15]

Roughly 90% of the rainfall in the country is caused by convective forces, the upward movement of warm air that leads to the formation of clouds and rain. The remaining 10% of the rainfall is influenced by factors such as the shape of the land (orography) and the movement of weather fronts.[16] The average yearly precipitation varies from 300mm (approximately 12 inches) in the south and southwest regions to more than 1,000 mm (approximately 40 inches) in the north and northeast.[17] However, some research indicates that the average rainfall in Zimbabwe has decreased by 10% or 100 mm over the past century.[18] Given that precipitation is influenced by various factors, it's crucial to investigate potential causes for its decline in Zimbabwe. This is particularly significant as most people in Zimbabwe are subsistence farmers who rely on rain fed agriculture.[19]

Technical infrastructure

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In urban centers of Zimbabwe the majority of the water supply comes from piped water. In rural areas, Zimbabweans predominantly rely on wells and boreholes that tap into Zimbabwe's groundwater supply.[5] The construction of many wells was mainly financed by the households themselves. The dynamic development of the private sector is a good example of how self-supply initiatives can reach large parts of the population.[20] Many Zimbabweans still practice open defecation, especially in rural areas.[13] However, in large urban centers such as Harare, there are sewage systems, and many homes throughout Zimbabwe have private pit latrines or share communal latrines.[4]

A group of women and children at a borehole in Norton, Zimbabwe

In 2018 problems at the Morton Jeffray Waterworks in Harare were said to be the cause of the renewed cholera outbreak.[21] In 2018, the Morton Jeffray Waterworks in Harare was identified as the source of a renewed cholera outbreak, attributed to problems within the facility. Subsequently, Lisben Chipfunde, the head of amenities and environment in the Harare City Council, confirmed that the water shortage persisted, exacerbating the situation, particularly during the 2019-2020 rainy season. The Prince Edward Water Works faced depletion due to drought conditions, compelling the Harare City Council to centralize water supply operations at the Morton Jaffray Water Works. As a consequence, numerous residential areas experienced prolonged periods without access to clean water. This dire situation forced residents to resort to using unsafe and contaminated water sources, such as wells and boreholes, further jeopardizing public health and exacerbating the risk of waterborne diseases like cholera.[22]

Several promising technological innovations have greatly improved the access to and quality of water supply in Zimbabwe. For example the Zimbabwean Bush Pump has been highlighted as a "fluid" technology that has greatly expanded access to cleaner water throughout the country. The diffusion of this technology can be understood because of its remarkable adaptability. The implementation, operation, and repair of the bush pump is determined by the input and choices of local communities, and as such this technology has no "hard boundaries" since it can be adapted, utilized, and personalized by communities throughout Zimbabwe.[23]

Kariba dam as seen from Zimbabwe.

Institutional overview

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Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe are managed by various governmental ministries and departments, overseen by organizations like the National Action Committee (NAC) and the Ministry of Water Resources Development and Management (MoWRDM).[2] These entities work with the WASH coalition, including NGOs, UNICEF, and private groups chaired by the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, to finance and build water supply and sanitation systems in line with the UN Millennium Development Goal.[24] NAC and MoWRDM also supervise the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA), responsible for water distribution across sectors, including management of 250 major dams [5] NAC operates through subcommittees like Rural Water Supply and Sanitation, and Urban Water Supply and Sanitation, involving various governmental agencies in rural and urban water infrastructure planning.[2] Local water distribution is managed by village or regional governments and occasionally by ZINWA.

Zimbabwe had a functioning water system until the late 1980s, that provided 85% of the local population with access to potable water.[25] While some of this working system is still recognized In Harare, the government has not done a sufficient job at maintaining the piped infrastructure. The combination of limited systems, a growing population, and many people’s inability to afford access to water, has resulted in extreme corruption and inequity.

The water and sanitation crisis in Harare, Zimbabwe, poses severe health risks, as highlighted in a 2013 report by Human Rights Watch. Despite past efforts, conditions conducive to epidemics persist in the city's high-density suburbs. The report reveals challenges like limited access to clean water and sanitation services, leading residents to drink from contaminated sources and practice open defecation. Deteriorating water infrastructure and population growth exacerbate sporadic and contaminated water supply. Government failure to maintain the system forces reliance on unsafe sources, violating residents' right to clean water. The report recommends investing in low-cost sanitation and water strategies, fair pricing for municipal water, and no disconnections for non-payment. Though government initiatives offer hope, concerns over transparency and corruption remain.[25] This includes instances of city budgets being redirected for uses other than systems of maintenance and improvement, in which those budgets are intended for. As a result, necessary courses of action, such as purchasing water treatment chemicals, are not funded as they should be, which creates this cycle of unsafe water.[25] Much of these instances were observed from the Human Rights Watch report released in November 2013, but have carried on in more recent dates.

Investing in low-cost sanitation and water strategies continues to be necessary in achieving suitable water sanitation for Zimbabwe. In 2013, the country’s government took a $144 million (US) loan from the Chinese government to “upgrade the water infrastructure primarily by improving the sewage treatment plants.”[25] While this was a good step in the right direction, many still feel that there is a lack of transparency coming from the government, and an immense amount of corruption and neglect that is visible to struggling communities. Zimbabwe also approved a new constitution in 2013 that recognizes an explicit right to water, but whether or not this right has been prioritized since is uncertain.[25] They also sanctioned the Zimbabwe Development Agency (ZIDA) PPP Act of 2020 that encourages the use of PPPs (public private partnerships).[26] Besides this, there is not a single act of legislation that specifically addresses the administration of water and sanitation, and lack of funding for projects limits the ability to build new dams, renovate old ones, and build treatment facilities, which would cost $2.2 billion (US) over ten years to do.[26]

External cooperation

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A number of foreign governments and NGOs are actively working to improve water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe through both small and large scale infrastructure projects. As well as actively participating, these organizations finance many other efforts. These organizations include the World Bank, the African Development Bank (AfDB), and the German Government, who through its technical cooperation agency, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), gave $6 million (US) to improve the water supply and sanitation systems in the towns of Gweru, Kadoma, and Kariba. The Australian government also provided over $10 million (US) for water supply and sanitation system improvements and research.[5]

WASH sector

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UNICEF spearheads multiple initiatives in collaboration with the comprehensive Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) program, aimed at enhancing water and sewage systems worldwide. Through its WASH program, UNICEF is dedicated to ensuring universal access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities across communities worldwide. In 2018, UNICEF expanded rural water access by drilling boreholes and rehabilitating pipe water systems with a focus on solar power. Urban water production doubled in 14 small towns, and sewer systems were rehabilitated. Efforts included developing a national public-private framework and supporting pilot projects for improved monitoring. Community participation was enhanced through Short Message Service (SMS) linkage to a rural WASH information system.[27]

Operating in over 100 countries, UNICEF delivers vital WASH services to some of the world’s most vulnerable populations. During the COVID-19 pandemic, UNICEF intensified its WASH interventions, distributing soap and hygiene kits to 74 million individuals, while also installing handwashing stations and latrines to promote public health and hygiene practices.[27]

In Zimbabwe, UNICEF's initiatives include updating sanitation systems in the towns of Masvingo, Plumtree, and Zvishavane, as well as managing a $30 million (US Dollars) project to provide potable water and improved sanitation to 500,000 Zimbabweans. Collaboratively, UNICEF and the WASH program strive to extend access to safe water and sanitation to 2.3 million people in Zimbabwe currently lacking these essential services.[13]

UNICEF Zimbabwe's Annual Report from 2023 also showed validation and commitment to the WASH sector, which included a "national budget estimate for adequate WASH services in health care facilities."[28] UNICEF reached hundreds of thousands of people with "climate resilient, basic, safe water through risk-informed planning, multi-use systems and capacity building for sustainability."[28] They also reached tens of thousands of people with basic sanitation services, including their demand-led sanitation approach and in emergency situations, as well as safe water from water trucking in cholera-affected areas, and "life-saving WASH supplies such as household water storage and treatment chemicals."[28]

Environmental concerns

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As a result of mining, industry, large scale unsustainable agriculture, and somewhat lax and unenforced pollution laws, many rivers and lakes in Zimbabwe are polluted. This has made drinking and bathing in these rivers and lakes unsafe.[27][29] In particular the water of several rivers that go through the Marange diamond fields in eastern Zimbabwe has been so polluted that it has killed livestock that drank it and given rashes to bathers.[30] Another area of Zimbabwe with especially high levels of water pollution is Harare and its nearby suburbs. This is due to the large population of Harare, decrepit and broken sewage systems, and mismanagement by government agencies designated to enforce environmental and water quality regulations.[31] Fortunately, there are programs in place that inspect the quality of the water of many of the major rivers as well as gauging stations that measure the water supply levels of Zimbabwe's dams.[32]

Human concerns

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Effects of water quality on health

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The lack of improved water supply and sanitation severely impacts the human capabilities of all Zimbabweans. Without clean water and proper sanitation human beings are more prone to contracting illnesses, and therefore suffer greater rates of morbidity and mortality due to these illnesses. Improved water supply and sanitation sectors are shown to be highly effective at reducing the rates of morbidity and mortality for many illnesses including ascariasis, cholera, diarrhea, dracunculiasis, hookworm infection, schistosomiasis, and trachoma.[33] Diarrhea is an especially serious disease considering it is the largest killer of children under the age of five in Africa.[3] Cholera is also a serious sickness in Zimbabwe.

The 2008 outbreak of Cholera was especially concerning due to the spiraling political and economic crisis, which led to a collapse of many public services and an inconsistency in fresh water supplies.[34] The 2018 outbreak was smaller, and curtailed, due to the fortunate preparation and administration of the oral cholera vaccine (OCV), of which 2.5 million doses were provided, especially in high-risk populations.[34] Recently, in 2023, Cholera outbreaks came back, affecting at least six countries in the region. Malawi, being the worst affected, received three shipments of OCV "in response to applications to the Gavi-supported global oral cholera vaccine stockpile, established in 2013."[34]

Open defecation

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Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe faces significant challenges, with both successful localized efforts and widespread deficiencies in infrastructure. The serious effects of unimproved water supply and sanitation on health and human dignity underscore the importance of global initiatives such as the UN Millennium Development Goals, which aimed to halve "the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation".[35] To address these challenges, UNICEF, in collaboration with the Government of Zimbabwe and funded by the UK's Department for International Development, is implementing a Rural WASH Programme. This program aims to reduce open defecation and improve water and sanitation in rural areas through demand-led sanitation approaches.

Since its inception, the program has achieved over 3,300 open defecation-free communities across 45 districts, with community structures trained in hygiene promotion to instill good sanitation practices. Additionally, the Ministry of Health and Child Care trains local builders in latrine construction and provides support to vulnerable families for latrine construction.[36] In line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the Government of Zimbabwe has approved a gender-sensitive Sanitation and Hygiene Policy, aiming to create an open defecation-free Zimbabwe by 2030. This policy utilizes demand-led Sanitation Focused Participatory Health and Hygiene Education (SafPHHE), implemented in the 45 supported rural districts. Efforts to reduce open defecation have shown progress, with the percentage declining to 21.7% in 2019. However, disparities persist between urban and rural populations, with only 0.7% of the urban population practicing open defecation compared to 31.3% in rural areas in the same year.[1]

Gender equality

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By creating improved water supply and sanitation facilities women's lives achieve greater agency. It is often women who are responsible for providing the water supply used by the family on a day-to-day basis. As a result of a family having clean bathrooms and a safe water supply within close proximity of its dwelling, women spend less time collecting water and more time pursuing their own ambitions or doing other necessary work.[4] During World Water Day on March 22, 2016, Zimbabwe’s Minister of Water, Environment, and Climate, Oprah Muchinguri, underscored the lack of clean water access as a significant impediment for girls, pointing out that they often miss school to search for water.[37] In addition the lack of clean bathrooms in many Zimbabwean schools prevent girls from attending school while menstruating. Thus, eliminating poor sanitation and increasing access to potable water greatly increases human dignity and capabilities.[3]

The Zimbabwe Urban Water and Sanitation Program (UWSP) has established the importance of gender dynamics within the water supply and sanitation issue, which has led to their gender aware approach "along the implementation of activities designed to create the space for equality of opportunity."[38] They researched and analyzed women's perceptions of water and sanitation access, compared to men. They concluded that men in the area are more focused on technical matters, including construction or welding, whereas women are more concerned with household related water needs and usage, including ensuring the availability for everyday tasks and overall quality of water. The actual needs between men and women were slim, apart from areas such as the ones mentioned above like menstruation, but UWSP recognized the importance in steering their support to align with the inconveniences mentioned by female consumers.[38]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b "Zimbabwe's Second Voluntary National Review" (PDF). 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d e "Water Supply and Sanitation in Zimbabwe." AMCOW. Collaboratively published report circa 2010. http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-Zimbabwe.pdf.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g "Troubled Water Burst Pipes, Contaminated Wells, and Open Defecation in Zimbabwe's Capital." Human Rights Watch. Independently published report, 2o13, U.S.A.. https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/zimbabwe1113_forUpload_1.pdf.
  4. ^ a b c d e "The Zimbabwe Experience, Lessons From a Review of 15 Years of the Zimbabwe integrated Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Program." Water and Sanitation Program. Published May 2002. http://www.its.caltech.edu/~e105/readings/cases/rural_sanitation-zimbabwe.pdf.
  5. ^ a b c d "Water Resource Management, Supply, and Sanitation Zimbabwe Report." African Development Bank Group. Accessed September 7, 2014. http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/9.%20Zimbabwe%20Report_Chapter%207.pdf.
  6. ^ a b "AQUASTAT - FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture". Archived from the original on 22 December 2011.
  7. ^ "Zimbabwe profile - Timeline". BBC News. 11 July 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
  8. ^ "Zimbabwe cholera 'to top 100,000'". BBC News. 26 May 2009. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
  9. ^ a b c "Zimbabwe | Sanitation and Water for All (SWA)". www.sanitationandwaterforall.org. 30 January 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
  10. ^ "Goals Archive". The Global Goals. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
  11. ^ "Zimbabwe Country Overview" (PDF). Africa Finance Ministers' Meeting: 1–7. 4 November 2020.
  12. ^ "Zimbabwe: Dire Lack of Clean Water in Capital". 22 September 2021.
  13. ^ a b c "Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene." UNICEF. Accessed September 7, 2014. http://www.unicef.org/zimbabwe/water_san_hygiene.html.
  14. ^ a b "UNICEF Zimbabwe releases its 2023 Annual Report showcasing results for women and children". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 1 April 2024.
  15. ^ "World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal". climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
  16. ^ unfccc.int https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/zwenc3.pdf. Retrieved 19 March 2024. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  17. ^ unfccc.int https://unfccc.int/NDCREG. Retrieved 19 March 2024. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  18. ^ Mazvimavi, D. (22 December 2010). "Investigating changes over time of annual rainfall in Zimbabwe". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 14 (12): 2671–2679. Bibcode:2010HESS...14.2671M. doi:10.5194/hess-14-2671-2010. hdl:10566/8373. ISSN 1027-5606.
  19. ^ Makoni, Fungai S.; Manase, Gift; Ndamba, Jerry (1 January 2004). "Patterns of domestic water use in rural areas of Zimbabwe, gender roles and realities". Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C. Water, Science, Technology and Policy Convergence and Action by All (A Meeting Point for Action leading to Sustainable Development). 29 (15): 1291–1294. Bibcode:2004PCE....29.1291M. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2004.09.013. ISSN 1474-7065.
  20. ^ Olschewski, Andre (2016), Supported Self-supply – learning from 15 years of experiences (PDF), 7th RWSN Forum “Water for Everyone”, 7ème Forum RWSN « L'eau pour tous », 29 Nov - 02 Dec 2016, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
  21. ^ Makoni, Munyaradzi (29 September 2018). "Inside Zimbabwe's efforts to tame cholera". Lancet. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
  22. ^ "In Zimbabwe, Disaster at the Intersection of Cholera and Climate Change". Global Press Journal. 11 December 2023. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  23. ^ De Laet, Marianne, and Annemarie Mol. (2000) "The Zimbabwe bush pump mechanics of a fluid technology." Social studies of science 30.2: 225-263.
  24. ^ Wash coalition overviewwsscc.org Archived 12 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ^ a b c d e "Zimbabwe: Water and Sanitation Crisis | Human Rights Watch". 19 November 2013. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  26. ^ a b Mutandwa, Hudson; Vyas-Doorgapersad, Shikha (7 December 2023). "The State of Water Infrastructure Development in Zimbabwe". African Journal of Governance & Development. 12 (2): 40–57. doi:10.36369/2616-9045/2023/v12i2a4. ISSN 2616-9045.
  27. ^ a b c "Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) | UNICEF Zimbabwe". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
  28. ^ a b c "UNICEF Zimbabwe Annual Report 2023" (PDF). UNICEF: 23–24.
  29. ^ Gogo, Jeffrey. "Water Pollution Major Problem." The Herald. Published May 19, 2014. http://www.herald.co.zw/water-pollution-major-problem/
  30. ^ Mambondiyani, Andrew. "The Pollution Fallout From Zimbabwe's Blood Diamonds." Yale University. May 24, 2012. http://e360.yale.edu/feature/the_pollution_fallout_from_zimbabwes_blood_diamonds/2533/
  31. ^ Nhapi, Innocent. "The water situation in Harare, Zimbabwe: a policy and management problem." Water Policy 11. Published 2009. http://test.iwaponline.com/wp/01102/0221/011020221.pdf.
  32. ^ "Zimbabwe." FAO. Accessed November 1, 2014. http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/x9751e/x9751e08.htm.
  33. ^ Esrey, SA; Potash, JB; Roberts, L; Shiff, C (1991). "Effects of improved water supply and sanitation on ascariasis, diarrhoea, dracunculiasis, hookworm infection, schistosomiasis, and trachoma". Bull. World Health Organ. 69 (5): 609–21. PMC 2393264. PMID 1835675.
  34. ^ a b c "After three outbreaks, Zimbabwe is on high alert to curtail cholera". www.gavi.org. Retrieved 1 April 2024.
  35. ^ "Target 7.A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources". UN. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
  36. ^ "How Chikare Village became open defecation free | UNICEF Zimbabwe". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
  37. ^ "Lack of water is a stumbling block to gender equality in Zimbabwe". 2016.
  38. ^ a b "Zimbabwe: Addressing gender specific needs vs creating space and opportunity to challenge gender roles and promote gender equality | GIZ Gender". Retrieved 19 March 2024.
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